You’re Seeing Spots from Sodium in Soft Water

You may be wondering why a water softener can’t reduce TDS when it is removing minerals like calcium and magnesium. That’s because water softeners use an ion exchange process to replace hard minerals with sodium ions. Since sodium ions are being exchanged for calcium and magnesium ions, the TDS of your water isn’t directly affected. For every calcium and magnesium ion taken out, a sodium ion is put in. The higher the mineral content in your water, the more sodium is exchanged to soften it. The sodium content of softened water completely depends on how hard it was to begin with. Softened water is certainly better for cleaning and bathing, and will extend the life of appliances like your washing machine and water heater. However, the spotting you notice from soft water may actually be sodium spots. When water evaporates from your clean dishes or after washing your car, a powdery sodium residue could be left behind. The good news is, sodium spotting can be very easily wiped off with a towel. The same cannot be said for soap scum and limescale spotting. You can also avoid sodium spots by thoroughly hand drying your car or dishes instead of letting them air dry.

Winterizing your water softener

WINTERIZING YOUR WATER SOFTENER – WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW Source : WQA Do you need to winterize your water softener or filter? And if so, what does winterization involve? That depends on the situation… If you keep your water softener or filter in the basement of an occupied home, you shouldn’t have to worry about winterization. You will want to winterize your system if you have any of the following: A unit installed in an unheated garage A vacation home you’re not using in the winter You leave your home for an extended winter vacation In all of these situations, it is smart to take precautions that ensure your water softener will be protected in below freezing temperatures. Frozen pipes could lead to pipes that burst, which could cause significant damage to your property as well as your water treatment equipment. Let’s take a look at some helpful advice. Insulation and Extra Heating For people who plan to continue using their water softener during the winter, there are a few simple things you can do to make sure it doesn’t freeze in cold weather. If you live in a milder climate, where the weather doesn’t get extremely cold, insulating your pipes and tanks should be enough to protect your system during the winter. You can purchase pipe insulation wrap at any home improvement store. Heat tape or electric pipe heating cables for the water lines are also a good idea. When it comes to water softener tanks, some homeowners have an insulated box built around the system. You can also purchase plumbing insulation in sheets, or wrap an insulation blanket around them. There are even special jackets designed specifically for water softener tanks. Because of the salt saturation, your brine tank is only likely to freeze in very cold climates where temperatures can drop below zero. If you are using your water softener year round, the most important thing is to keep it warm enough to prevent freezing, which is why a space heater in your garage can help. Remember, you only need to keep the temperature above 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and you should always take safety precautions as per the manufacture when using a space heater. Only turn it on when you know it is necessary. Running water will also prevent freezing. If you’re only going to be away for a few days, you could leave a faucet running at a slow trickle to keep things moving in those pipes while you’re gone. Although not a cure-all, this will at times, prevent full-on freezing and bursting from freezing pipes. Draining and Disconnecting a Water Softener If you do not plan on using your water softener during the winter, and the heat in your residence will be turned off during that time, there are specific steps you should follow to disconnect, drain, and store your system. It is recommended that you drain the tanks. This ensures there won’t be any water left in the system that could freeze and cause damage. You’ll need to put the softener into its regeneration cycle and wait until you notice the system backwashing water into the drain. At this point, if your water softener has a manual bypass valve, it should be put into the bypass position to turn off the supply of water to the water softener. This will isolate and protect your system from the rest of the building’s supply of water during this time. Remove the unit from the bypass valve and proceed to remove the valve from the tank. Once the riser tube is exposed, use plastic 3/8” – 1/2” plastic-tubing long enough to each the bottom of the riser tube and lower distributor. Siphoning the water from the media tank is recommended at this point. The slower process of siphoning will ensure that all the water is removed from the tank. After water has stopped flowing from the siphon tubing, allow the tank to sit for 5 to 10 minutes. This additional time allows for all the water to completely settle to the bottom of media tank. At that time you can attempt to siphon the balance of water which has settled out. The majority of standing water should be scooped out of the brine tank, but the solution that’s left should not freeze because of the high salt content. Consult your user’s manual for detailed instructions on how to completely drain your tanks, or call a water treatment professional for help. Next, unplug the water softener or turn off the switch to the power source. You should be able to leave the brine tank in the cold, but you may want to completely remove and store your softener tank in a warmer area. Still Have Questions? Find a Water-Right Expert!

Is clear water clean?

Clear water is not always a sign of clean water, report from CNN below. http://www.cnn.com/2017/11/09/health/cdc-water-contamination-reports/index.html

What causes scale to deposit?

If your water is soft meaning low in hardness minerals you generally don’t have an issue with limescale deposits. However, if you have hard water (most people do) and it’s not treated you’ll see calcium carbonate deposits on your fixtures etc. So, what causes scale to deposit? When calcium levels become supersaturated in water it can no longer be held in solution and it’s forced out, combining with bicarbonate to form calcium carbonate in its calcite state. There are two main causes of supersaturation: Temperature increase, the most obvious as we see scale in kettles and on heat elements. A pH increase, often due to a drop in pressure as carbonic acid flashes off as CO2 (think of the pssssst when you open Coke bottle). The acid reduction causes the pH to shoot up. You’ll have noticed cold water scaling at drinking water fountains.

I see ads for “No Salt” needed water conditioners. How do they work without using salt?

1. Many dealers will advertise a no salt water conditioner. Any brand of water conditioner can be operated without using salt. This is done by using a salt substitute, potassium chloride. It generally costs twice as much as regular salt ( sodium chloride ), and can be difficult to find in some areas. Also, it is recommended to increase the salt setting on your control valve by about 10 % , when using a salt substitute. This is because it is not as efficient in providing the needed negative ions to the resin beads as regular salt. 2. Some companies offer catalytic filters and/or magnetic or Anti-Scale devices to “soften” your water that do not use salt, or anything else to regenerate their product. Buyer beware! If a technology had been developed that could replace a resin based water conditioner, then everyone would be selling it. I know I would. Those salt bags are heavy! If you have a water softener now, you will be very dis-pleased with the over priced “Anti-Scale” products, should you switch. I’ve been told that many times over the years by people who tried them. For more details, I’d recommend this webpage written by a retired chemist. http://www.chem1.com/CQ/ And this one, http://www.uswatersystems.com/blog/2010/12/no-sal… And this one, http://ths.gardenweb.com/forums/load/plumbing/msg… Please do some “home work” before you waste a lot of money on something that sounds too good to be true. *** Another customer wrote / asked: I was tempted to switched to salt-free water conditioning system. What’s your opinion on those unit like www.nuvoh2o.com ? They claimed that you only need to replace the filter cartridge twice a year making it almost maintenance free? *** My opinion is they don’t work… they do NOT soften the water, nor do they remove manganese or iron from the water. Their “anti-scaling” process is very limited in it’s benefit. And anyone who has enjoyed true “conditioned” water, is always disappointed if they switch to this OVER PRICED method. You won’t find those “testimonials” on their website. And the Filter Cartridges are just Carbon Filters, because the media can not tolerate chlorine in the water supply, so it must be removed first. Most Dealers use full size tanks with 1 cu.ft. of activated carbon instead of “cartridges” for better flow rate, and longer time before needing replacement of the carbon ( every 1 – 5 years depending on application ).

What Is NSF Certification?

Millions of people take the safety of their food, water and consumer products for granted on a daily basis. Why? Because of three letters: NSF. NSF certification is your key to making sure that the products you use meet strict standards for public health protection. Choosing a product certified by NSF lets you know the company complies with strict standards and procedures imposed by NSF. From extensive product testing and material analyses to unannounced plant inspections, every aspect of a product’s development is thoroughly evaluated before it can earn our certification. Most importantly, NSF certification is not a one-time event, but involves regular on-site inspections of manufacturing facilities and regular re-testing of products to ensure that they continue to meet the same high standards required to maintain certification over time. If for any reason a product fails to meet one or more certification criteria, NSF will take enforcement actions to protect you, including product recall, public notification or de-certification. Products that earn NSF certification are said to be “NSF certified” or “NSF listed” and display the applicable NSF certification mark to show that they have been tested by one of today’s most respected independent product testing organizations.

What is Water Softener?

<img fetchpriority="high" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3165" alt="Softenerdiagram" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Softenerdiagram-300x235.gif" width="300" height="235" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Softenerdiagram-64x50.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Softenerdiagram-120x94.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Softenerdiagram-300x235.gif 300w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> 1. Hard water 1.1 What is hard water? When water is referred to as ‘hard’ this simply means, that it contains more minerals than ordinary water. These are especially the minerals calcium and magnesium. The degree of hardness of the water increases, when more calcium and magnesium dissolves. Magnesium and calcium are positively charged ions. Because of their presence, other positively charged ions will dissolve less easily in hard water than in water that does not contain calcium and magnesium. This is the cause of the fact that soap doesn’t really dissolve in hard water. 1.2 Which industries attach value to hardness of water? In many industrial applications, such as the drinking water preparation, in breweries and in sodas, but also for cooling- and boiler feed water the hardness of the water is very important. 2. Water softening 2.1 What is water softening? When water contains a significant amount of calcium and magnesium, it is called hard water. Hard water is known to clog pipes and to complicate soap and detergent dissolving in water. Water softening is a technique that serves the removal of the ions that cause the water to be hard, in most cases calcium and magnesium ions. Iron ions may also be removed during softening. The best way to soften water is to use a water softener unit and connect it directly to the water supply. 2.2 What is a water softener? A water softener is a unit that is used to soften water, by removing the minerals that cause the water to be hard. 2.3 Why is water softening applied? Water softening is an important process, because the hardness of water in households and companies is reduced during this process. When water is hard, it can clog pipes and soap will dissolve in it less easily. Water softening can prevent these negative effects. Hard water causes a higher risk of lime scale deposits in household water systems. Due to this lime scale build-up, pipes are blocked and the efficiency of hot boilers and tanks is reduced. This increases the cost of domestic water heating by about fifteen to twenty percent. Another negative effect of lime scale is that it has damaging effects on household machinery, such as laundry machines. Water softening means expanding the life span of household machine, such as laundry machines, and the life span of pipelines. It also contributes to the improved working, and longer lifespan of solar heating systems, air conditioning units and many other water-based applications. 2.4 What does a water softener do? Water softeners are specific ion exchangers that are designed to remove ions, which are positively charged. Softeners mainly remove calcium (Ca 2+ ) and magnesium (Mg 2+ ) ions. Calcium and magnesium are often referred to as ‘hardness minerals’. Softeners are sometimes even applied to remove iron. The softening devices are able to remove up to five milligrams per litre (5 mg/L) of dissolved iron. Softeners can operate automatic, semi-automatic, or manual. Each type is rated on the amount of hardness it can remove before regeneration is necessary. A water softener collects hardness minerals within its conditioning tank and from time to time flushes them away to drain. Ion exchangers are often used for water softening. When an ion exchanger is applied for water softening, it will replace the calcium and magnesium ions in the water with other ions, for instance sodium or potassium . The exchanger ions are added to the ion exchanger reservoir as sodium and potassium salts (NaCl and KCl). 2.5 How long does a water softener last? A good water softener will last many years. Softeners that were supplied in the 1980’s may still work, and many need little maintenance, besides filling them with salt occasionally. 3. Softening salts 3.1 Which types of salt are sold for application in a water softener? For water softening, three types of salt are generally sold: – Rock salt – Solar salt – Evaporated salt Rock salt as a mineral occurs naturally in the ground. It is obtained from underground salt deposits by traditional mining methods. It contains between ninety-eight and ninety-nine percent sodium chloride. It has a water insolubility level of about 0.5-1.5%, being mainly calcium sulphate. Its most important component is calcium sulphate. Solar salt as a natural product is obtained mainly through evaporation of seawater. It contains 85% sodium chloride. It has a water insolubility level of less than 0.03%. It is usually sold in crystal form. Sometimes it is also sold in pellets. Evaporated salt is obtained through mining underground salt deposits of dissolving salt. The moisture is then evaporated, using energy from natural gas or coal. Evaporated salt contains between 99.6 and 99.99% sodium chloride. 3.2 Should we use rock salt, evaporated salt or solar salt in a water softener? Rock salt contains a lot of matter that is not water-soluble. As a result, the softening reservoirs have to be cleaned much more regularly, when rock salt is used. Rock salt is cheaper than evaporated salt and solar salt, but reservoir cleaning may take up a lot of your time and energy. Solar salt contains a bit more water-insoluble matter than evaporated salt. When one makes a decision about which salt to use, consideration should be given to how much salt is used, how often the softener needs cleanout, and the softener design. If salt usage is low, the products could be used alternately. If salt usage is high, insoluble salts will build up faster when using solar salt. Additionally, the reservoir will need more frequent cleaning. In that case evaporated salt is recommended. 3.3 Is it harmful to mix different kinds of salt in a water softener? It is generally not harmful to mix salts in a water softener, but there are types of softeners that are designed for specific water softening products. When using alternative products, these softeners will not function well. Mixing evaporated salt with rock salt is not recommended, as this could clog the softening reservoir. It is recommended that you allow your unit to go empty of one type of salt before adding another to avoid the occurrence of any problems. 3.4 How often should one add salt to a softener? Salt is usually added to the reservoir during regeneration of the softener. The more often a softener is regenerated, the more often salt needs to be added. Usually water softeners are checked once a month. To guarantee a satisfactory production of soft water, the salt level should be kept at least half-full at all times. 3.5 How come water sometimes does not become softer when salt is added? Before salt starts working in a water softener it needs a little residence time within the reservoir, since the salt is dissolving slowly. When one immediately starts regeneration after adding salt to the reservoir, the water softener may not work according to standards. When the water softening does not take place it could also indicate softener malfunction, or a problem with the salt that is applied. 4. Softening costs 4.1 How much does a water softener cost? Some softeners are more efficient than others and as a result the prizes may differ. There are time operated softeners and water meter-controlled softeners available. The water meter-controlled units produce the softest water per pound of salt. Some softeners work on electricity, but some more recent water softeners use waterpower. Costs of a water softener greatly depend upon the type of water softener and the type of energy that is used, but also upon the hardness of the water that needs softening and the water use. When the water is very hard and it is used heavily, the costs of softening will rise. Generally the costs of a water softener can vary between $ 0,20 and $ 0,40 a day. The costs of water softeners are usually far outweighed by the benefits and cost savings obtained, through using softened water. 4.2 How much does a water softener cost during operation? The running cost is merely the cost of salt. This is likely to be around $ 1,95 per person in the household in a month. 5. Softening drinking water 5.1 Do water-producing companies always produce softened water? Although water-producing companies do have the opportunity to produce softened water, they will not always do so. A water producing company only has to add a water softener in its water purification system, to produce softened water cheaply. But than consumers would not be able to have the choice to drink un-softened water. Hard water problems are most likely to occur when water is heated. As a result, hard water causes few problems to the water supplying companies, especially when only cold water runs through their pipes. 5.2 Is softened water safe to drink? Softened water still contains all the natural minerals that we need. It is only deprived off its calcium and magnesium contents, and some sodium is added during the softening process. That is why in most cases, softened water is perfectly safe to drink. It is advisable that softened water contains only up to 300mg/L of sodium. In areas with very high hardness the softened water must not be used for the preparation of baby-milk, due to the high sodium content after the softening process has been carried out. 5.3 Can salt from softening installations enter drinking water? Salt does not have the opportunity to enter drinking water through softening installations. The only purpose of salt in a water softener is to regenerate the resin beads that take the hardness out of water. 5.4 How much sodium does one absorb from softened water? The sodium uptake through softened water depends on the hardness of the water. Averagely, less than 3% sodium uptake comes from drinking softened water. Estimates say that a person consumes about two to three teaspoons of salt a day, from various sources. Assuming a daily intake of five grams of sodium through food and the consumption of three quarts of water, the contribution of sodium (Na+) in the water from the home water softening process, is minimal compared to the total daily intake of many sodium-rich foods. 5.5 Will softening drinking water deprive it of essential minerals? Softening will not deprive water of its essential minerals. Softening only deprives drinking water of minerals that cause the water to be hard, such as calcium, magnesium and iron. 6. Softeners maintenance 6.1 When does a softener resin need replacement? When the water does not become soft enough, one should first consider problems with the salt that is used, or mechanical malfunctions of softener components. When these elements are not the cause of the unsatisfactory water softening, it may be time to replace the softener resin, or perhaps even the entire softener. Through experience we know that most softener resins and ion exchanger resins last about twenty to twenty-five years. 6.2 Does a softener brine tank need cleaning? Usually it is not necessary to clean out a brine tank, unless the salt product being used is high in water-insoluble matter, or there is a serious malfunction of some sort. If there is a build-up of insoluble matter in the resin, the reservoir should be cleaned out to prevent softener malfunction. 6.3 What is ‘meshing’ and why should we avoid it? When loosely compacted salt pellets or cube-style salt is used in a resin, it may form tiny crystals of evaporated salt, which are similar to table salt. These crystals may bond, creating a thick mass in the brine tank. This phenomenon, commonly known as ‘meshing’, may interrupt brine production. Brine production is the most important element for refreshing of the resin beads in a water softener. Without brine production, a water softener is not able produce soft water. 7. Softener operational questions 7.1 Can brine from softeners damage a septic tank? The Water Quality Association has performed studies on this subject. These studies have indicated that a properly placed septic tank that works adequately cannot be damaged by brine that is discharged from a water softener. And softened water can sometimes even help reduce the amount of detergents discharged into a septic tank. 7.2 Can a water softener be used with lead pipes? Lead pipe systems have to be replaced, before softened water can flow through them. Although lead pipe systems in hard water areas may not cause a problem, it is advisable to replace them anyway. When naturally or artificially softened water ends up in these lead pipe systems, it may cause the pickup of lead. 7.2 Can one measure water hardness inline? Yes, although the measurement system is mainly applied in industrial water softeners. 8. Softening in households 8.1 Can a water softener be taken along during moving? With modern water softeners, it is very possible to take them along during moving. Installation techniques involve quick fitting connections, similar to those used for laundry machines. All that has to be done is closing off the inlet and outlet valves of the softener and open up the bypass valve, allowing hard water to flow to the storage tank and household taps. After that the softener can be disconnected, moved to its new location and placed there. 8.2 Can waste from a water softener be discharged directly in the garden? As brine alters the osmotic pressure that plants rely upon to regulate water needs, direct discharge of either sodium or potassium chloride brine should be avoided. 8.3 Is softened water any help for dry skin conditions? There are cases to be noted, in which people with dry skin conditions have benefited from water softening, because soft water is kinder to the hair and skin.

What is Reverse Osmosis ?

What is Reverse Osmosis? Reverse Osmosis, commonly referred to as RO, is a process where you demineralize or deionize water by pushing it under pressure through a semi-permeable Reverse Osmosis Membrane. Osmosis To understand the purpose and process of Reverse Osmosis you must first understand the naturally occurring process of Osmosis . Osmosis is a naturally occurring phenomenon and one of the most important processes in nature. It is a process where a weaker saline solution will tend to migrate to a strong saline solution. Examples of osmosis are when plant roots absorb water from the soil and our kidneys absorb water from our blood. Below is a diagram which shows how osmosis works. A solution that is less concentrated will have a natural tendency to migrate to a solution with a higher concentration. For example, if you had a container full of water with a low salt concentration and another container full of water with a high salt concentration and they were separated by a semi-permeable membrane, then the water with the lower salt concentration would begin to migrate towards the water container with the higher salt concentration. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3156" alt="ROdiagram1" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram1-300x244.gif" width="300" height="244" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram1-64x52.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram1-120x97.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram1-300x244.gif 300w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane that will allow some atoms or molecules to pass but not others. A simple example is a screen door. It allows air molecules to pass through but not pests or anything larger than the holes in the screen door. Another example is Gore-tex clothing fabric that contains an extremely thin plastic film into which billions of small pores have been cut. The pores are big enough to let water vapor through, but small enough to prevent liquid water from passing. Reverse Osmosis is the process of Osmosis in reverse . Whereas Osmosis occurs naturally without energy required, to reverse the process of osmosis you need to apply energy to the more saline solution. A reverse osmosis membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that allows the passage of water molecules but not the majority of dissolved salts, organics, bacteria and pyrogens. However, you need to ‘push’ the water through the reverse osmosis membrane by applying pressure that is greater than the naturally occurring osmotic pressure in order to desalinate (demineralize or deionize) water in the process, allowing pure water through while holding back a majority of contaminants. Below is a diagram outlining the process of Reverse Osmosis. When pressure is applied to the concentrated solution, the water molecules are forced through the semi-permeable membrane and the contaminants are not allowed through. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3157" alt="ROdiagram2" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram2-300x241.gif" width="300" height="241" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram2-64x51.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram2-120x96.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram2-300x241.gif 300w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> How does Reverse Osmosis work? Reverse Osmosis works by using a high pressure pump to increase the pressure on the salt side of the RO and force the water across the semi-permeable RO membrane, leaving almost all (around 95% to 99%) of dissolved salts behind in the reject stream. The amount of pressure required depends on the salt concentration of the feed water. The more concentrated the feed water, the more pressure is required to overcome the osmotic pressure. The desalinated water that is demineralized or deionized, is called permeate (or product) water. The water stream that carries the concentrated contaminants that did not pass through the RO membrane is called the reject (or concentrate) stream. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3158" alt="ROdiagram3" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram3-300x78.png" width="300" height="78" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram3-64x17.png 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram3-120x31.png 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram3-300x78.png 300w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram3.png 500w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> As the feed water enters the RO membrane under pressure (enough pressure to overcome osmotic pressure) the water molecules pass through the semi-permeable membrane and the salts and other contaminants are not allowed to pass and are discharged through the reject stream (also known as the concentrate or brine stream), which goes to drain or can be fed back into the feed water supply in some circumstances to be recycled through the RO system to save water. The water that makes it through the RO membrane is called permeate or product water and usually has around 95% to 99% of the dissolved salts removed from it. It is important to understand that an RO system employs cross filtration rather than standard filtration where the contaminants are collected within the filter media. With cross filtration, the solution passes through the filter, or crosses the filter, with two outlets: the filtered water goes one way and the contaminated water goes another way. To avoid build up of contaminants, cross flow filtration allows water to sweep away contaminant build up and also allow enough turbulence to keep the membrane surface clean. What will Reverse Osmosis remove from water? Reverse Osmosis is capable of removing up to 99%+ of the dissolved salts (ions), particles, colloids, organics, bacteria and pyrogens from the feed water (although an RO system should not be relied upon to remove 100% of bacteria and viruses). An RO membrane rejects contaminants based on their size and charge. Any contaminant that has a molecular weight greater than 200 is likely rejected by a properly running RO system (for comparison a water molecule has a MW of 18). Likewise, the greater the ionic charge of the contaminant, the more likely it will be unable to pass through the RO membrane. For example, a sodium ion has only one charge (monovalent) and is not rejected by the RO membrane as well as calcium for example, which has two charges. Likewise, this is why an RO system does not remove gases such as CO2 very well because they are not highly ionized (charged) while in solution and have a very low molecular weight. Because an RO system does not remove gases, the permeate water can have a slightly lower than normal pH level depending on CO2 levels in the feed water as the CO2 is converted to carbonic acid. Reverse Osmosis is very effective in treating brackish, surface and ground water for both large and small flows applications. Some examples of industries that use RO water include pharmaceutical, boiler feed water, food and beverage, metal finishing and semiconductor manufacturing to name a few. Reverse Osmosis Performance & Design Calculations There are a handful of calculations that are used to judge the performance of an RO system and also for design considerations. An RO system has instrumentation that displays quality, flow, pressure and sometimes other data like temperature or hours of operation. In order to accurately measure the performance of an RO system you need the following operation parameters at a minimum: 1. Feed pressure 2. Permeate pressure 3. Concentrate pressure 4. Feed conductivity 5. Permeate conductivity 6. Feed flow 7. Permeate flow 8. Temperature Salt Rejection % This equation tells you how effective the RO membranes are removing contaminants. It does not tell you how each individual membrane is performing, but rather how the system overall on average is performing. A well-designed RO system with properly functioning RO membranes will reject 95% to 99% of most feed water contaminants (that are of a certain size and charge). You can determine effective the RO membranes are removing contaminants by using the following equation: The higher the salt rejection, the better the system is performing. A low salt rejection can mean that the membranes require cleaning or replacement. Salt Passage % This is simply the inverse of salt rejection described in the previous equation. This is the amount of salts expressed as a percentage that are passing through the RO system. The lower the salt passage, the better the system is performing. A high salt passage can mean that the membranes require cleaning or replacement. Recovery % Percent Recovery is the amount of water that is being ‘recovered’ as good permeate water. Another way to think of Percent Recovery is the amount of water that is not sent to drain as concentrate, but rather collected as permeate or product water. The higher the recovery % means that you are sending less water to drain as concentrate and saving more permeate water. However, if the recovery % is too high for the RO design then it can lead to larger problems due to scaling and fouling. The % Recovery for an RO system is established with the help of design software taking into consideration numerous factors such as feed water chemistry and RO pre-treatment before the RO system. Therefore, the proper % Recovery at which an RO should operate at depends on what it was designed for. By calculating the % Recovery you can quickly determine if the system is operating outside of the intended design. The calculation for % Recovery is below: For example, if the recovery rate is 75% then this means that for every 100 gallons of feed water that enter the RO system, you are recovering 75 gallons as usable permeate water and 25 gallons are going to drain as concentrate. Industrial RO systems typically run anywhere from 50% to 85% recovery depending the feed water characteristics and other design considerations. Concentration Factor The concentration factor is related to the RO system recovery and is an important equation for RO system design. The more water you recover as permeate (the higher the % recovery), the more concentrated salts and contaminants you collect in the concentrate stream. This can lead to higher potential for scaling on the surface of the RO membrane when the concentration factor is too high for the system design and feed water composition. The concept is no different than that of a boiler or cooling tower. They both have purified water exiting the system (steam) and end up leaving a concentrated solution behind. As the degree of concentration increases, the solubility limits may be exceeded and precipitate on the surface of the equipment as scale. For example, if your feed flow is 100 gpm and your permeate flow is 75 gpm, then the recovery is (75/100) x 100 = 75%. To find the concentration factor, the formula would be 1 ÷ (1-75%) = 4. A concentration factor of 4 means that the water going to the concentrate stream will be 4 times more concentrated than the feed water is. If the feed water in this example was 500 ppm, then the concentrate stream would be 500 x 4 = 2,000 ppm. Flux For example, you have the following: The RO system is producing 75 gallons per minute (gpm) of permeate. You have 3 RO vessels and each vessel holds 6 RO membranes. Therefore you have a total of 3 x 6 = 18 membranes. The type of membrane you have in the RO system is a Dow Filmtec BW30-365. This type of RO membrane (or element) has 365 square feet of surface area. To find the flux (Gfd): The flux is 16 Gfd. This means that 16 gallons of water is passed through each square foot of each RO membrane per day. This number could be good or bad depending on the type of feed water chemistry and system design. Below is a general rule of thumb for flux ranges for different source waters and can be better determined with the help of RO design software. If you had used Dow Filmtec LE-440i RO membranes in the above example, then the flux would have been 14. So it is important to factor in what type of membrane is used and to try and keep the type of membrane consistent throughout the system. Feed Water Source Gfd Sewage Effluent 5-10 Sea Water 8-12 Brackish Surface Water 10-14 Brackish Well Water 14-18 RO Permeate Water 20-30 Mass Balance A Mass Balance equation is used to help determine if your flow and quality instrumentation is reading properly or requires calibration. If your instrumentation is not reading correctly, then the performance data trending that you are collecting is useless. You will need to collect the following data from an RO system to perform a Mass Balance calculation: 1. Feed Flow (gpm) 2. Permeate Flow (gpm) 3. Concentrate Flow (gpm) 4. Feed Conductivity (µS) 5. Permeate Conductivity (µS) 6. Concentrate Conductivity (µS) The mass balance equation is: (Feed flow 1 x Feed Conductivity) = (Permeate Flow x Permeate Conductivity) + (Concentrate Flow*Concentrate Conductivity) 1 Feed Flow equals Permeate Flow + Concentrate Flow For example, if you collected the following data from an RO system: Permeate Flow 5 gpm Feed Conductivity 500 µS Permeate Conductivity 10 µS Concentrate Flow 2 gpm Concentrate Conductivity 1200 µS Then the Mass Balance Equation would be: (7 x 500) = (5 x 10) + (2*1200) 3,500 ≠ 2,450 Then find the difference (Difference / Sum) ∗ 100 ((3,500 – 2,450) / (3,500 + 2,450)) * 100 = 18% A difference of +/- 5% is ok. A difference of +/- 5% to 10% is generally adequate. A difference of > +/- 10% is unacceptable and calibration of the RO instrumentation is required to ensure that you are collecting useful data. In the example above, the RO mass balance equation falls out of range and requires attention. Understanding the difference between passes and stages in a Reverse Osmosis (RO) system The term stage and pass are often mistaken for the same thing in an RO system and can be confusing terminology for an RO operator. It is important to understand the difference between a 1 and 2 stage RO and a 1 and 2 pass RO. Difference between a 1 and 2 stage RO System In a one stage RO system, the feed water enters the RO system as one stream and exits the RO as either concentrate or permeate water. In a two-stage system the concentrate (or reject) from the first stage then becomes the feed water to the second stage. The permeate water is collected from the first stage is combined with permeate water from the second stage. Additional stages increase the recovery from the system. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3159" alt="ROdiagram4" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-300x295.gif" width="300" height="295" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-52x50.gif 52w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-64x63.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-66x66.gif 66w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-120x118.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-300x295.gif 300w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-500x492.gif 500w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> Array In a Reverse Osmosis System an array describes the physical arrangement of the pressure vessels in a 2 stage system. Pressure vessels contain RO membranes (usually from 1 to 6 RO membranes are in a pressure vessel). Each stage can have a certain amount of pressure vessels with RO membranes. The reject of each stage then becomes the feed stream for the next successive stage. The 2 stage RO system displayed on the previous page is a 2:1 array which means that the concentrate (or reject) of the first 2 RO vessels is fed to the next 1 vessel. RO System with Concentrate Recycle With an RO system that can’t be properly staged and the feed water chemistry allows for it, a concentrate recycle setup can be utilized where a portion of the concentrate stream is fed back to the feed water to the first stage to help increase the system recovery. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3160" alt="ROdiagram5" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram5-300x201.gif" width="300" height="201" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram5-64x43.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram5-120x80.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram5-300x201.gif 300w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram5-500x335.gif 500w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> Single Pass RO vs Double Pass RO Think of a pass as a stand alone RO system. With this in mind, the difference between a single pass RO system and a double pass RO system is that with a double pass RO, the permeate from the first pass becomes the feed water to the second pass (or second RO) which ends up producing a much higher quality permeate because it has essentially gone through two RO systems. Besides producing a much higher quality permeate, a double pass system also allows the opportunity to remove carbon dioxide gas from the permeate by injecting caustic between the first and second pass. C02 is undesirable when you have mixed bed ion exchange resin beds after the RO. By adding caustic after the first pass, you increase the pH of the first pass permeate water and convert C02 to bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonate (CO3-2) for better rejection by the RO membranes in the second pass. This can’t be done with a single pass RO because injecting caustic and forming carbonate (CO3-2) in the presence of cations such as calcium will cause scaling of the RO membranes. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3161" alt="ROdiagram6" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram6-300x260.gif" width="300" height="260" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram6-64x56.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram6-120x104.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram6-300x260.gif 300w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram6-500x433.gif 500w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> RO Pretreatment Proper pretreatment using both mechanical and chemical treatments is critical for an RO system to prevent fouling, scaling and costly premature RO membrane failure and frequent cleaning requirements. Below is a summary of common problems an RO system experiences due to lack of proper pretreatment. Fouling Fouling occurs when contaminants accumulate on the membrane surface effectively plugging the membrane. There are many contaminants in municipal feed water that are naked to the human eye and harmless for human consumption, but large enough to quickly foul (or plug) an RO system. Fouling typically occurs in the front end of an RO system and results in a higher pressure drop across the RO system and a lower permeate flow. This translates into higher operating costs and eventually the need to clean or replace the RO membranes. Fouling will take place eventually to some extent given the extremely fine pore size of an RO membrane no matter how effective your pretreatment and cleaning schedule is. However, by having proper pretreatment in place, you will minimize the need to address fouling related problems on a regular basis. Fouling can be caused by the following: 1. Particulate or colloidal mater (dirt, silt, clay, etc.) 2. Organics (humic/fulvic acids, etc) 3. Microorganisms (bacteria, etc). Bacteria present one of the most common fouling problems since RO membranes in use today cannot tolerate a disinfectant such as chlorine and therefore microorganisms are often able to thrive and multiply on the membrane surface. They may product biofilms that cover the membrane surface and result in heavy fouling. 4. Breakthrough of filter media upstream of the RO unit. GAC carbon beds and softener beds may develop an under drain leak and if there is not adequate post filtration in place the media can foul the RO system. By performing analytical tests, you can determine if the feed water to your RO has a high potential for fouling. To prevent fouling of an RO system, mechanical filtration methods are used. The most popular methods to prevent fouling are the use of multi-media filters (MMF) or microfiltration (MF). In some cases cartridge filtration will suffice. Scaling As certain dissolved (inorganic) compounds become more concentrated (remember discussion on concentration factor) then scaling can occur if these compounds exceed their solubility limits and precipitate on the membrane surface as scale. The results of scaling are a higher pressure drop across the system, higher salt passage (less salt rejection), low permeate flow and lower permeate water quality. An example of a common scale that tends to form on an RO membrane is calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ). Chemical Attack Modern thin film composite membranes are not tolerant to chlorine or chloramines. Oxidizers such as chlorine will ‘burn’ holes in the membrane pores and can cause irreparable damage. The result of chemical attack on an RO membrane is a higher permeate flow and a higher salt passage (poorer quality permeate water). This is why microorganism growth on RO membranes tends to foul RO membranes so easily since there is no biocide to prevent its growth. Mechanical Damage Part of the pretreatment scheme should be pre and post RO system plumbing and controls. If ‘hard starts’ occur mechanical damage to the membranes can occur. Likewise, if there is too much backpressure on the RO system then mechanical damage to the RO membranes can also occur. These can be addressed by using variable frequency drive motors to start high pressure pumps for RO systems and by installing check valve(s) and/or pressure relief valves to prevent excessive back pressure on the RO unit that can cause permanent membrane damage. Pretreatment Solutions Below are some pretreatment solutions for RO systems that can help minimize fouling, scaling and chemical attack. Multi Media Filtration (MMF) A Multi-Media Filter is used to help prevent fouling of an RO system. A Multi-Media Filter typically contains three layers of media consisting of anthracite coal, sand and garnet, with a supporting layer of gravel at the bottom. These are the medias of choice because of the differences in size and density. The larger (but lighter) anthracite coal will be on top and the heavier (but smaller) garnet will remain on the bottom. The filter media arrangement allows the largest dirt particles to be removed near the top of the media bed with the smaller dirt particles being retained deeper and deeper in the media. This allows the entire bed to act as a filter allowing much longer filter run times between backwash and more efficient particulate removal. A well-operated Multi-Media Filter can remove particulates down to 15-20 microns. A Multi-Media Filter that uses a coagulant addition (which induces tiny particles to join together to form particles large enough to be filtered) can remove particulates down to 5-10 microns. To put this in perspective, the width of a human hair is around 50 microns. A multi media filter is suggested when the Silt Density Index (SDI) value is greater than 3 or when the turbidity is greater than 0.2 NTU. There is no exact rule, but the above guidelines should be followed to prevent premature fouling of RO membranes. It is important to have a 5 micron cartridge filter placed directly after the MMF unit in the event that the under drains of the MMF fail. This will prevent the MMF media from damaging downstream pumps and fouling the RO system. Microfiltration (MF) Microfiltration (MF) is effective in removing colloidal and bacteria matter and has a pore size of only 0.1-10µm. Microfiltration is helpful in reducing the fouling potential for an RO unit. Membrane configuration can vary between manufacturers, but the “hollow fibre” type is the most commonly used. Typically, the water is pumped from the outside of the fibres, and the clean water is collected from the inside of the fibres. Microfiltration membranes used in potable water applications usually operate in “dead-end” flow. In dead-end flow, all of the water fed to the membrane is filtered through the membrane. A filter cake that must be periodically backwashed from the membrane surface forms. Recovery rates are normally greater than 90 percent on feed water sources which have fairly high quality and low turbidity feeds. Antiscalants and Scale Inhibitors Antiscalants and scale inhibitors, as their name suggests, are chemicals that can be added to feed water before an RO unit to help reduce the scaling potential of the feed water. Antiscalants and scale inhibitors increase the solubility limits of troublesome inorganic compounds. By increasing the solubility limits, you are able to concentrate the salts further than otherwise would be possible and therefore achieve a higher recovery rate and run at a higher concentration factor. Antiscalants and scale inhibitors work by interfering with scale formation and crystal growth. The choice of antiscalant or scale inhibitor to use and the correct dosage depends on the feed water chemistry and RO system design. Softening by ion exchange A water softener can be used to help prevent scaling in an RO system by exchanging scale forming ions with non scale forming ions. As with a MMF unit, it is important to have a 5 micron cartridge filter placed directly after the water softener in the event that the under drains of the softener fail. Sodium Bisulfite (SBS) injection By adding sodium bisulfite (SBS or SMBS), which is a reducer, to the water stream before an RO at the proper dose you can remove residual chlorine. Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) GAC is used for both removing organic constituents and residual disinfectants (such as chlorine and chloramines) from water. GAC media is made from coal, nutshells or wood. Activated carbon removes residual chlorine and chloramines by a chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons from the surface of the GAC to the residual chlorine or chloramines. The chlorine or chloramines ends up as a chloride ion that is no longer an oxidizer. The disadvantage of using a GAC before the RO unit is that the GAC will remove chlorine quickly at the very top of the GAC bed. This will leave the remainder of the GAC bed without any biocide to kill microorganisms. A GAC bed will absorb organics throughout the bed, which is potential food for bacteria, so eventually a GAC bed can become a breeding ground for bacteria growth which can pass easily to the RO membranes. Likewise, a GAC bed can produce very small carbon fines under some circumstances that have the potential to foul an RO. RO Data Trending and Normalization The RO membranes are the heart of the RO system and certain data points need to be collected to determine the health of the RO membranes. These data points include the system pressures, flows, quality and temperature. Water temperature is directly proportional to pressure. As the water temperature decreases it becomes more viscous and the RO permeate flow will drop as it requires more pressure to push the water through the membrane. Likewise, when the water temperature increases the RO permeate flow will increase. As a result, performance data for an RO system must be normalized so that flow variations are not interpreted as abnormal when no problem exists. The normalized flows, pressures and salt rejection should be calculated, graphed and compared to the baseline data (when the RO was commissioned or after the membranes were cleaned or replaced) to help troubleshoot any problems and also determine when to clean or inspect the membranes for damage. Data normalization helps display the true performance of the RO membranes. As a general rule of thumb, when the normalized change is +/- 15% from the baseline data then you need to take action. If you don’t follow this rule then RO membrane cleanings may not be very effective at brining the membranes back to near new performance. RO Membrane Cleaning RO membranes will inevitably require periodic cleaning, anywhere from 1 to 4 times a year depending on the feed water quality. As a general rule, if the normalized pressure drop or the normalized salt passage has increased by 15%, then it is time to clean the RO membranes. If the normalized permeate flow has decreased by 15% then it is also time to clean the RO membranes. You can either clean the RO membranes in place or have them removed from the RO system and cleaned off site by a service company that specializes in this service. It has been proven that offsite membrane cleaning is more effective at providing a better cleaning than onsite cleaning skids. RO membrane cleaning involves low and high pH cleaners to remove contaminants from the membrane. Scaling is addressed with low pH cleaners and organics, colloidal and biofouling are treated with a high pH cleaner. Cleaning RO membranes is not only about using the appropriate chemicals. There are many other factors involved such as flows, water temperature and quality, properly designed and sized cleaning skids and many other factors that an experienced service group must address in order to properly clean RO membranes. Summary Reverse Osmosis is an effective and proven technology to produce water that is suitable for many industrial applications that require demineralized or deionized water. Further post treatment after the RO system such as mixed bed deionization can increase the quality of the RO permeate and make it suitable for the most demanding applications. Proper pretreatment and monitoring of an RO system is crucial to preventing costly repairs and unscheduled maintenance. With the correct system design, maintenance program, and experienced service support, your RO system should provide many years of high purity water.

When water is referred to as ‘hard’ this simply means, that it contains more minerals than ordinary water. These are especially the minerals calcium and magnesium. The degree of hardness of the water increases, when more calcium and magnesium dissolves. Magnesium and calcium are positively charged ions. Because of their presence, other positively charged ions will dissolve less easily in hard water than in water that does not contain calcium and magnesium. This is the cause of the fact that soap doesn’t really dissolve in hard water.

Air is the Earth ‘s atmosphere . It is the clear gas in which living things live and breathe . It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has no color or smell . It has mass and weight . It is a matter as it has mass and weight. Air creates atmosphere pressure . There is no air in the vacuum and cosmos . Air is a mixture of 78.03% nitrogen , 20.99% oxygen , 0.94% argon , 0.03% carbon dioxide , 0.01% hydrogen , 0.00123% Neon , 0.0004% helium , 0.00005% krypton and 0.000006% xenon . [1] There are also small amounts of other things. Animals and humans need the oxygen in the air to live. In the human body , the lungs give oxygen to the blood , and give back carbon dioxide to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off oxygen that humans can breathe again. Wind is moving air. Air can be polluted by some gases (such as ozone and carbon monoxide ), smoke , and ash . Some believe that this pollution may be one of the causes of global warming , by causing the “ greenhouse effect “.

Is Ontario’s air quality getting better or worse?

Ontario’s air quality has improved steadily since 1988. We have good air quality approximately 90 per cent of the time.

What is the purpose of smog alerts?

The purpose of these alerts is to inform people with breathing difficulties to avoid unnecessary exposure to smog, to inform major pollution sources that they should consider, if possible, reducing their emissions, and to solicit everyone’s help in lessening the problem by curtailing activities that produce smog.

Where is the best air quality and lowest incidences of smog in the province?

Generally, air quality improves as you travel northward and eastward across the province, however, the formation and transport of smog is strongly dependent on meteorological conditions. Summer smog episodes in Ontario are often a part of a regional weather condition that prevails over much of northeastern North America. Elevated levels of ozone and fine particulate matter are typically due to weather patterns that affect the lower Great Lakes region. Such weather patterns are invariably associated with slow-moving high pressure cells across the region and result in the long-range transport of smog pollutants from neighbouring U.S. industrial and urbanized states during the flow of warm air from the southwest to the northeast. When looking for a place to live, it is important to keep local sources in mind. For instance, it is best to stay away from areas with a lot of industry and major roadways. The impacts of emissions from vehicles on a highway or any roadway depend on a number of factors, including: the distance from the highway; traffic volume; traffic congestion (i.e. free flowing or congested); and predominant wind directions. Generally speaking, air concentration impacts from a highway decrease significantly with distance from the roadway. Typically, moving 100 metres from the edge of the road can result in a decrease in pollutant concentrations of 60-80 per cent. In addition, trees can filter the air, so a well-treed area can have better air quality than one without trees.

Smog is a general term used to describe a mixture of air pollutants, dominated by ground-level ozone and fine particulate matter. Ozone is created when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds combine in the presence of sunlight – making ozone primarily a summer phenomenon, occuring mostly in southern Ontario. Fine particulate matter is primarily formed from chemical reactions in the atmosphere and through fuel combustion. It can elevate smog levels during all months of the year.

Where does smog come from?

The contaminants that create smog are released during the combustion of fossil fuels in our vehicles, power plants, factory boilers and homes. They are also released by industrial processes, the evaporation of liquid fuels and the use of solvents and other volatile products such as oil-based paints. Smog-causing contaminants are released during forest fires, and emitted by natural sources such as: trees, bogs, and volcanic activity. Most of Ontario’s smog problems are caused by a combination of local emissions and pollutants carried by the wind from pollution sources in the United States. More than half of our smog problem comes from south of the border.

How is smog forecast?

The Ministry of the Environment meteorologists combine real-time information on pollutant levels with data on weather patterns, topographical conditions and emission sources to predict impending smog problems. The data are obtained by a network of 40 air monitoring stations across the province. Over the last four years the ministry has invested more than $6 million in upgrading Ontario’s air monitoring network, making it the most modern and best equipped in North America.

What is the Air Quality Index?

The Air Quality Index (AQI) is an indicator of our air quality, based on pollutants that have adverse effects on human health and the environment. The pollutants are ozone, fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and total reduced sulphur compounds. If the AQI falls below 32, the air quality is considered good or very good. An AQI reading between 32 and 49 indicates moderate air quality, and an AQI reading from 50 to 99 indicates poor air quality. A reading over 99 indicates very poor air quality.

How is the AQI calculated?

The AQI is a calculated index that provides Ontarians with air quality information in near real-time. This index has its own concentration breakpoints for the descriptive categories (i.e. very good, good, moderate, poor, and very poor). It may be difficult to compare AQI calculations from jurisdiction to jurisdiction across North America because they are not standardized and the formulas involved are complex. The relationship between AQI and the individual pollutant concentrations are shown below. For each category, a linear relationship is assumed between index values and the concentrations of the sub-index pollutant. At the end of each hour, the concentration of each pollutant measured at individual AQI sites is converted into a number ranging from zero upwards using a common scale or index. The calculated number for each pollutant is referred to as a sub-index. At a given site, the highest sub-index becomes the AQI reading for that hour at that location. Ozone (O 3 ) AQI Category [O 3 ] (ppb) AQI Equation Very Good 0 to 23 0.6520 × [O 3 ] + 0 Good 24 to 50 0.5800 × [O 3 ] + 2.154 Moderate 51 to 80 0.5900 × [O 3 ] + 2.1 Poor 81 to 149 0.7200 × [O 3 ] – 8.37 Very Poor >149 0.7200 × [O 3 ] – 8.37 Fine Particulate Matter (PM 2.5 ) AQI Category [PM 2.5 ] 3-hour average (µg/m 3 ) AQI Equation Very Good <12 1.364 × [PM 2.5 ] + 0 Good 12 to 22 1.500 × [PM 2.5 ] – 2.000 Moderate 23 to 45 0.7727 × [PM 2.5 ] + 14.228 Poor 46 to 90 1.113 × [PM 2.5 ] – 1.298 Very Poor >90 1.100 × [PM 2.5 ] + 0 Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ) AQI Category [SO 2 ] (ppb) AQI Equation Very Good 0 to 79 0.1899 × [SO 2 ] + 0 Good 80 to 169 0.1685 × [SO 2 ] + 2.520 Moderate 170 to 250 0.2125 × [SO 2 ] – 4.125 Poor 251 to 1999 0.0280 × [SO 2 ] + 42.97 Very Poor >1999 0.0500 × [SO 2 ] + 0 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ) AQI Category [NO 2 ] (ppb) AQI Equation Very Good 0 to 50 0.300 × [NO 2 ] + 0 Good 51 to 110 0.2543 × [NO 2 ] + 3.00 Moderate 111 to 200 0.191 × [NO 2 ] + 10.79 Poor 201 to 524 0.1517 × [NO 2 ] + 19.5 Very Poor >524 0.1903 × [NO 2 ] + 0 Carbon Monoxide (CO) AQI Category [CO] (ppm) AQI Equation Very Good 0 to 12.49 1.2500 × [CO] + 0 Good 12.50 to 22.49 1.6700 × [CO] – 5.67 Moderate 22.50 to 30.49 2.4300 × [CO] – 23.86 Poor 30.50 to 49.49 2.7200 × [CO] – 34.39 Very Poor >49.49 2.0000 × [CO] + 0 Total Reduced Sulphur (TRS) AQI Category [TRS] (ppb) AQI Equation Very Good 0 to 5.49 3.0000 × [TRS] + 0 Good 5.50 to 10.49 3.7500 × [TRS] – 6.50 Moderate 10.50 to 27.49 1.0625 × [TRS] + 20.31 Poor 27.50 to 999.49 0.05046 × [TRS] + 48.59 Very Poor >999.49 0.1000 × [TRS] + 0 Notes: parts per billion (ppb) micrograms per cubic metre (µg/m 3 ) parts per million (ppm)

How have we improved our smog forecasts?

As of May 1, 2000, as part of its new Air Quality Ontario initiative, the ministry provided earlier, more effective notification of poor air quality than ever before. When air quality and weather conditions are likely to produce smog, the ministry takes steps to inform the public, and warn those most vulnerable to the health impacts of poor air quality. It provides two levels of alert: A Smog Watch is issued when there is a 50 per cent chance that elevated smog levels are forecast to occur within the next three days. A Smog Advisory is issued when there is a strong likelihood that elevated smog levels are forecast to occur within the next 24 hours, or it can be issued immediately if widespread, poor AQI readings occur, and weather conditions conducive to the persistence of such levels are expected to continue for several hours. When the weather changes, resulting in cleaner air, the ministry issues an advisory termination notice. In May 2001, the ministry adopted the policy of issuing a smog advisory immediately if widespread, poor AQI readings occur, and weather conditions conducive to the persistence of such levels are expected to continue for several hours. As of August 2002, the ministry added fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) to its AQI. This new sub-index provides Ontarians with more information on air quality so they can make informed decisions to protect their health and help improve the air we all share.

Is it possible to have poor air quality even if a smog watch or smog advisory has not been called?

Yes. Since smog is closely tied to the weather, it is impossible to be 100 per cent accurate 100 per cent of the time. For example, a weather system could arrive in Ontario before the predicted time, or could change direction. So poor air quality could occur without a smog advisory being called. It is also possible that poor air quality will not materialize even though a smog advisory has been called.

Where can I obtain hourly pollutant concentration data?

The Ontario Ministry of the Environment’s (MOE) Air Quality Index web site provides users with access to hourly pollutant concentration data from MOE’s ambient sites.The data output, which includes station and pollutant information, is available in both .HTML and/or .CSV format(s) which may be imported directly into Excel or any other spreadsheet application. Currently, online data is available from 2000 to 2012. The tool may be accessed at: http://www.airqualityontario.com/history/

What is the effect of the SHARP PM2.5 monitor on reported PM2.5concentrations?

The new SHARP monitor is able to detect additional components of PM 2.5 , especially during cold weather. As a result of this improvement in monitoring technology, there is potential of reporting higher PM 2.5 concentrations during the winter months. This is a reflection of more accurate measurements and does not necessarily mean that Ontario’s air quality is changing. The air is the same; only the monitoring method has changed.

Why did Ontario upgrade the PM2.5 monitoring network?

Ontario strives to be a leader in air quality reporting and continues to benefit from one of the most comprehensive air monitoring systems in North America. The network upgrade was funded by Environment Canada under a national initiative to standardize PM 2.5 monitoring methods across Canada and ensure data comparability. The objective is to have all jurisdictions operating federally approved PM 2.5 monitors by 2013.

How can I get air quality information?

On this website: http://www.airqualityontario.com . This site provides Air Quality Index (AQI) readings, ambient air pollution data and air quality forecasts, as well as information on actions that can be taken when a smog alert is issued. You can also subscribe to the ministry’s smog alert network , and receive an automatic email whenever the ministry issues a smog watch or smog advisory. By telephone: You can get AQI readings from recorded telephone messages by dialing 1-800-387-7768 (toll-free) or 416-246-0411 in Toronto. To obtain AQI readings in French, dial 1-800-221-8852. Via radio and television: The MOE has worked for many years with news media across Ontario to inform the public about smog conditions. This will continue to be a crucial method for communicating information about smog and actions that can be taken to reduce smog-causing emissions. This smog season you can expect your local radio and television stations to add smog watches and smog advisories to their weather forecasts.

How is PM2.5 monitored in Ontario?

In 2002, Ontario was the first province in Canada to introduce monitoring of PM 2.5 to the Air Quality Index. The ministry reported real-time PM 2.5 with the Thermo Scientific TEOM 1400AB/SES until December 31, 2012. Continuous PM 2.5 monitoring technologies have evolved dramatically over the last decade. The network is now reporting real-time PM 2.5 concentrations using Thermo Scientific SHARP 5030, an approved Class III Federal Equivalent Method designated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 2009. Ontario evaluated the SHARP monitor starting in 2009, and adopted this method in 2012 in concurrence with Environment Canada. In 2013, the SHARP monitors were deployed across Ontario’s AQI network.

What should I do if a smog alert is called?

Here are some actions you can take to help protect the environment and your own health: At home: Conserve electricity year-round by adjusting the heat or air conditioner and turning off lights you are not using. Avoid letting your car, or any other engine, idle for long periods. Reduce your use of gasoline-powered equipment. Avoid mowing the lawn when air quality is poor. Don’t use oil-based products such as paints, solvents or cleaners if you can avoid them. They contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which contribute to smog. Avoid or reduce strenuous physical outdoor activities when smog levels are high, especially during the late afternoon. Do not exert yourself outdoors. If possible, stay indoors in a cool, air-conditioned environment. Get engine tune-ups and car maintenance checks as advised by the car manufacturer’s maintenance schedule. Limit the amount of wood you burn in your fireplace or woodstove. When burning wood, use only the dry, seasoned variety. At work: If possible, take public transit, or walk to work. If you use a car, don’t travel alone; encourage and facilitate car pooling. Avoid traffic congestion. Consider teleconferencing, instead of traveling to meetings. As always, consult your doctor for specific medical advice on how to cope with poor air quality.

Where can I obtain information on smog and my health?

For information on smog and associated health impacts, please refer to our Smog and Your Health Fact Sheets, located at http://www.airqualityontario.com/press/publications.php .

What is a smog alert response plan?

When smog levels reach critical levels, steps should be taken immediately to protect the most vulnerable members of society and reduce emissions that could worsen local air quality. A smog alert response plan is a written protocol of actions to be taken by an organization, government agency, company or municipality when poor air quality is forecast. Such a plan should include a mechanism for informing residents or employees of the potential health threat, as well as specific actions that can be taken to reduce the risk. More information on developing a smog alert response plan and additional suggestions for what you can do to combat smog is available in the ministry publication – Smog Alert Response: A Municipal Guide to Action .

How many smog advisories were issued in previous years?

The ministry monitors air pollution levels and issues smog advisories when there is a strong likelihood that widespread elevated and persistent smog levels are expected. Here is a summary of smog advisories issued for Ontario by the ministry since 2003: Smog advisories issued for Ontario by the ministry since 2003 Year Number of Advisories Total Number of Days 2003 7 19 2004 8 20 2005 15 53 2006 6 17 2007 13 39 2008 8 17 2009 3 5 2010 3 12 2011 5 9 2012 12 30 2013 1 2 2014* 0 0 * as of January 16, 2014.

What is Ontario doing to improve and protect air quality?

Ontario is committed to doing its part to reduce emissions and improve air quality. The Air Quality Ontario initiative is one component of a comprehensive strategy to protect the environment and safeguard public health. Other components of the strategy include: Drive Clean – a program that reduces nitrogen oxides (NO X ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) through emissions testing of motor vehicles and enforcement through the Smog Patrol; Ontario Regulation 194/05 – Industry Emissions: Nitrogen Oxides (NO X ) and Sulphur Dioxides (SO 2 ) – this regulation establishes industry sector emission caps starting in 2006 and defines how these caps will be reduced in future years (2007, 2010 and 2015); Ontario Regulation 419/05: Air Pollution – Local Air Quality – sets air quality standards for toxic substances to protect local communities; Ontario Regulation 397/01: Emissions Trading – caps nitrogen oxides (NO X ) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) emissions from the electricity sector; Ontario Regulation 127/01: Airborne Contaminant Discharge – Monitoring and Reporting – focuses public attention on environmental practices, thus compelling high emitters to clean up their act, and OnAir: Ontario’s online registry for reporting to the public; Developing cleaner sources of energy to replace coal-fired generation by early 2009, a mandate to create renewable energy, encouraging energy efficiency and conservation programs, including use of co-generation; Stage 1 Vapour Recovery (Ontario Regulation 455/94) requires gasoline facility operators to install, maintain and operate gasoline vapour recovery systems, and Gasoline Volatility (Ontario Regulation 271/91 as amended by Ontario Regulation 45/97) which limits gasoline vapour pressure during the summer; Environmental Training for Dry Cleaners (Ontario Regulation 323/94); Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) Guideline A-5 for New and Modified Combustion Turbines; and, CCME Guideline A-9 for New Commercial/Industrial Boilers and Heaters.

Particulate matter (PM) consists of airborne particles in solid or liquid form. PM may be classified as primary or secondary, depending on the compounds and processes involved during its formation. Primary PM is emitted at the emissions source in particle form, for example, the smokestack of an electrical power plant or a recently tilled field subject to wind erosion. Secondary PM formation results from a series of chemical and physical reactions involving different precursor gases, such as sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides, and ammonia reacting to form sulphate, nitrate and ammonium particulate matter. The size of PM particles largely determines the extent of environmental and health damage caused. For this reason, Environment Canada identifies different sizes of PM: Total Particulate Matter (TPM) – airborne particulate matter with an upper size limit of approximately 100 micro metre (µm) in aerodynamic equivalent diameter Particulate Matter <10 microns (PM 10 ) – airborne particulate matter with a mass median diameter less than 10 µm Particulate Matter < 2.5 microns (PM 2.5 ) – airborne particulate matter with a mass median diameter less than 2.5 µm Numerous studies have linked PM to aggravated cardiac and respiratory diseases such as asthma, bronchitis and emphysema and to various forms of heart disease. PM can also have adverse effects on vegetation and structures, and contributes to visibility deterioration and regional haze.

Guidance for Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) in Residential Indoor Air

Background Fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) is a general term for all small particles found in air measuring equal to or less than 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter. It is a complex mixture whose constituents vary in size, shape, density, surface area, and chemical composition (Health Canada and Environment Canada 1999; US EPA 2009). In 1987, Health Canada published Exposure Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Quality, which set maximum acceptable long- and short-term exposure ranges for PM 2.5 in homes. These guidelines are being revised to reflect the most up-to-date science on the health effects and residential exposure for PM 2.5 . Exposure Indoor PM 2.5 is composed of indoor-generated PM 2.5 from sources such as smoking, cooking, and cleaning, and PM 2.5 that has infiltrated from the outside. In studies conducted by Health Canada in different Canadian cities, average indoor PM 2.5 concentrations were less than 15 µg/m 3 in homes without smokers, and less than 35 µg/m 3 in homes with smokers (Health Canada 2010). In general, indoor PM 2.5 levels were lower than outdoor concentrations measured directly outside the home, except in homes with smokers. Health Effects Outdoor PM 2.5 , as measured at area monitoring stations, has been shown in a large number of studies to be strongly associated with cardiovascular and respiratory mortality and morbidity endpoints (Health Canada and Environment Canada 1999; WHO 2005; US EPA 2009). There is no recognized threshold of health effects for outdoor PM 2.5 regardless of where exposure occurs (i.e., indoors or outdoors), and there is evidence that adverse health effects occur at current levels of exposure. A much smaller number of studies have investigated the relationship between indoor PM 2.5 and health. There is some evidence for a relationship between indoor PM 2.5 levels and declines in lung function and increases in exhaled nitric oxide, a marker of airway inflammation, in asthmatic children (Koenig et al. 2003; Delfino et al. 2004; Koenig et al. 2005; Trenga et al. 2006). However, changes in exhaled nitric oxide were more strongly associated with outdoor PM 2.5 than indoor PM 2.5 (Koenig et al. 2003; Koenig et al. 2005; Allen et al. 2008). Associations between indoor PM 2.5 and subtle changes in markers of cardiovascular disease have also been observed in older adults (Delfino et al. 2008; Liu et al. 2009; Allen et al. 2011). Guidance The acceptable long- and short-term exposure ranges established in the 1987 exposure guidelines should be rescinded and replaced with this new guidance focusing on indoor source control to minimize long-term exposure to PM 2.5 indoors. Indoor levels of PM 2.5 should be kept as low as possible, as there is no apparent threshold for the health effects of PM 2.5 . It is impossible to entirely eliminate PM 2.5 indoors, as among its sources are essential and everyday activities, such as cooking and cleaning, as well as infiltration from outdoor sources, over which residents have little or no control. However, any reduction in PM 2.5 would be expected to result in health benefits, especially for sensitive individuals, such as those with underlying health conditions, the elderly or children. The focus should be on reducing indoor sources over which homeowners and residents have some degree of control. The main recommended strategies to reduce exposure to the major sources of indoor-generated PM 2.5 are: Cessation of smoking Use of a stove top fan while cooking Other actions to reduce indoor PM 2.5 levels include ensuring there is adequate ventilation, especially when doing activities that may generate PM 2.5 . The potential benefits of ventilation, however, may be reduced or eliminated, if outdoor PM 2.5 levels are high. There is also evidence that some in-duct air filters or portable air cleaners with filters may help reduce indoor PM 2.5 levels. Filter efficiency, however, is highly variable among products and the effectiveness of filters as a method to reduce indoor PM 2.5 will depend on the product used and how it is maintained. A discussion of how to properly select and maintain air filters and portable air cleaners is beyond the scope of this document. The above recommendations are consistent with Health Canada guidance to homeowners to focus on identifying the potential sources of contaminants in the home, and then on improving air quality through source control, improved ventilation and other remedial measures such as air filtration. Identification of potential sources is, in most situations, more informative and cost-effective than indoor air quality testing and comparison of measured values to quantitative guideline values. Quantitative residential indoor air guidelines may be of use to public health and building professionals for the interpretation of results of indoor air quality studies and for the development of performance standards. With respect to indoor PM 2.5 , Health Canada is not proposing a specific maximum exposure limit, but is recommending that indoor PM 2.5 , at a minimum, be lower than PM 2.5 outside the home. Having an indoor level that is greater than the outdoor level indicates a strong indoor source(s) of PM 2.5 that needs to be addressed. The ratio of indoor to residential outdoor PM 2.5 levels can therefore serve to highlight situations where strategies to reduce indoor-generated PM 2.5 are necessary and will be most effective. The recommended PM 2.5 reduction strategies can be employed in all homes. However, for those homes with a ratio of indoor to outdoor PM 2.5 levels greater than one, targeted efforts to identify and remove indoor sources of PM 2.5 are a priority.

Air Cleaner and Air Purifier?

Air Cleaner and Air Purifier? When looking for a way to clean the air inside a home, it’s easy to become confused about terminology. For example, many people think that air purifiers are different than air cleaners. In reality, they are the same. The terms air purifier and air cleaner are completely interchangeable. By understanding what air purifiers are and how they work, it’s easier to zero in on the right one. Indoor Air Pollutants and Air Purifiers Before looking for an indoor air purifier, or air cleaner, it helps to have a basic understanding of the types of air pollutants that are often found in homes. This knowledge makes it easier to find air cleaners and air purifiers that effectively clean the air. With a basic understanding of indoor air pollutants, it is easier to make sense of the descriptions of today’s most popular air cleaners. Volatile Organic Compounds Volatile organic compounds, or VOCs, are gases or vapors that are emitted by many everyday household items. They may be emitted by things like new carpeting, paints, adhesives, varnishes, glues, and disinfectants. To determine whether a household product contains VOCs, look for ingredients like formaldehyde, toluene, chloride, ethylene, and benzene. Some air cleaners are designed to filter VOCs from the air, but others aren’t capable of doing so. If this is an important factor, look for air purifiers with filters that pull VOCs out of the air. Odors and Gases Some air cleaners can largely eliminate odors and gases from the air in a home. They do so with activated carbon filters, which are included on just about every air purifier and air cleaner that’s on the market today. These filters use a process called adsorption to force these gases and odors to become attached using a chemical reaction. Common gases and odors include aerosols, tobacco smokes, cooking odors, indoor pesticides, kitty litter, and toxins. Airborne Particles Most people buy air purifiers and air cleaners to eliminate airborne particles from their homes. Airborne particles include things like dust mites, pet dander, pollen, mold, plant spores, and fungi. These types of particles exacerbate conditions like asthma and allergies, so it is smart to eliminate from the air inside a home. HEPA filters are considered to be the most effective in eliminating these particles, which can vary in size considerably but are all microscopic. The size of the average airborne particle is measured in microns. One micron equals 1/25,000 of an inch. To be classified as a HEPA filter, a filter must be able to pull 99.97 percent of airborne particles that measure as small as 0.3 microns. Particle Type Size Smoke 0.003 microns to 0.04 microns Bacteria 0.3 microns to three microns Fungi 0.5 microns to five microns Pet dander 0.3 microns to 100 microns Mold Two microns to 20 microns Pollen 10 microns to 100 microns Dust mite 10 microns to 40 microns Plant spore 10 microns to 70 microns Microorganisms Some air purifiers are designed to pull microorganisms from the air. In some cases, air cleaners also kill microorganisms using UV rays and other techniques. Bacteria, viruses, pathogens, and antigens are all microorganisms. Mold falls into this category as well. Types of Air Filters Whether it’s called an air purifier or an air cleaner, the most important components of this type of machine are its air filters. Indeed, most air purifiers and air cleaners contain at least two air filters. Some use three or four different air filters. One of the easiest ways to find the right air purifier is by looking for models that have specific types of filters. To do that, learn about the main characteristics of today’s most popular air filters. Activated Carbon Filters This type of filter isn’t generally used alone. Instead, it’s often used in conjunction with HEPA filters and other air filters. Activated carbon uses a chemical reaction called adsorption to pull odors, gases, and vapors from the air. The carbon that is found in these filters is treated with oxygen, which forces millions of small openings to develop. With an increased surface area, an activated carbon filter can pull odors, gases, and vapors from the air for a very long time. Some activated carbon filters can also pull VOCs from the air. They contain an extra chemical, which is known as a chemisorbent, which traps them in the filter or makes them harmless. Ion and Ozone Generators Although they aren’t technically filters, ion and ozone generators are designed to do the same thing: remove impurities from the air. However, instead of filtering them out, they just make them cling to surfaces around a room. These generators also often release ozone as a byproduct. This can be problematic because ozone is considered to be a lung irritant. Electrostatic Precipitators The same process that is used with ozone and ion generators is used with electrostatic precipitators. The primary difference is that electrostatic precipitators actually filter impurities out of the air too. However, they can also product ozone as a byproduct, so air purifiers that use this technology may not be suitable for people with respiratory conditions. The impurities are collected on plates that can be washed, so there’s no need to buy replacement filters. Charged Media Filters The description of these filters is almost identical to those of electrostatic precipitators. The main difference is that these filters actually use filters. They don’t use plates. As a result, it is necessary to change the filter from time to time. One of the best things about these filters is that they can trap extremely microscopic particles. Like electrostatic precipitators and ion and ozone generators, however, they also produce ozone. Pre-Filters If large particles are allowed to make contact with sensitive filters, air purifiers and air cleaners won’t work as effectively or as efficiently. That is why the vast majority of these machines have pre-filters as well. A pre-filter’s job is to pull larger particles from the air to keep them from being passed along to HEPA filters and other types of filters. They are typically made out of woven nylon or foam. In most cases, they can be cleaned again and again. Antibacterial and Germicidal Filters The only way to eliminate a huge percentage of germs and bacteria from the air is by purchasing an air purifier that includes antibacterial or germicidal filters. Sometimes, this technology involves the use of UV rays. Other times, HEPA filters are treated with specialized agents that kill bacteria, germs, and other microorganisms. HEPA Filters To successfully pull at least 99.97 percent of particles from the air, it’s crucial to buy an air purifier that uses HEPA filters. High-efficiency particulate air filters, or HEPA filters, were originally designed to remove radioactive dust particles from the air. However, all HEPA filters are not created equal. The higher the area is, the more effective a HEPA filter is. Look at the square footage of the filter before buying an air purifier that uses HEPA technology. Types of Air Cleaners There are three main air cleaners, or air purifiers, available: whole-house air cleaners, whole-house air filters, and portable air purifiers. Whole-House Air Cleaners Whole-house air cleaners are installed directly onto a home’s heating and cooling system. However, this is not a job for an average homeowner. A professional must install this type of system. Also, a home has to have forced-air ducts in order to make one of these systems work. It should also be noted that whole-house air purifiers often need to be wired directly into a home’s electrical system. Whole-House Air Filters An alternative way to clean a lot of the air in a home at one time is by using a whole-house air filter, which is designed to replace a standard furnace filter. This option is somewhat effective, but it doesn’t eliminate nearly as many impurities as other types of air cleaners. Portable Air Purifiers Although one portable air purifier is only going to clean the air in one room, it is going to do so in a very effective way. There are many affordable room air purifiers out there, so many people place on in each room. Pros and Cons of Different Air Purifiers Type of Air Purifier or Air Cleaner Pros Cons Whole-house air cleaner Filters air throughout the entire home Many options available Expensive Has to be professionally installed May have to be wired into home’s electrical system May not be as efficient as portable models Whole-house air filter Convenient Easy to use Inexpensive Not very effective at purifying the air in a home Filters must be compatible with furnace Portable air purifier Lightweight Compact May include casters or handles Huge variety of options available Options for every budget Only cleans the air in a single room Quality varies a lot from one model to the next Air Purifier Features Without understanding the main features of today’s air purifiers and air cleaners, finding the right option is extremely difficult. Energy Efficiency The energy efficiency of an air purifier can be gauged by considering how many watts of power it uses. If wattage information is unavailable, simply multiply the number of volts by the number of amps. Options range from air cleaners that operate on around 50 watts to models that run on 200 watts or more when on the highest setting. ACH The air changes per hour, or ACH, of an air purifier is an important characteristic. It reflects the number of times in an hour that an air cleaner exchanges the air in a room. The ACH is usually listed next to the room size. Stick with air purifiers with ACH ratings of four or higher because they exchange the air at least four times per hour. CADR Consider an air purifier’s clean air delivery rate, or CADR, before buying it as well. This rating is assigned by the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers, or AHAM. The higher the CADR is, the more effective an air cleaner is at purifying the air. Filter Replacements Prior to purchasing an air cleaner, check to see how its filter or filters need to be changed. Also find out the typical cost to replace each filter. Without doing this research, it’s possible to spend hundreds of extra dollars per year on filters for an air purifier, which can ruin what looked like an otherwise good deal. Conclusion Air purifiers and air cleaners are the same, but there are many options available within this category. To find the right air cleaner or air purifier, learn more about how they work and about the types of air filters that they use.

Public health experts estimate that air pollution is responsible for 16,000 premature deaths in this country each year; at this rate, forty Canadians die from air pollution-related causes each and every day. Indoor air quality (IAQ) : People working indoors often experience symptoms such as headaches, shortness of breath, coughing or nausea just to mention a few. However, it is rarely possible to prove that these symptoms are related to a particular indoor air contaminant. In fact, building occupants are simultaneously exposed to a wide range of indoor air contaminants. Causes of IAQ problems: Indoor environment – inadequate temperature, humidity, lighting, excessive noise Indoor air contaminants – chemicals, dusts, moulds or fungi, bacteria, gases, vapours, odours Insufficient outdoor air intake Our lung health— and our health in general— depends on clean air. Indoor and outdoor air pollution can cause health problems, especially for people who have lung diseases. Outdoor air quality is an important health concern. Air pollution continues to be a serious threat to the quality of the air we breathe. Air pollution can irritate, inflame, or destroy lung tissue. It weakens the lung’s defenses against contaminants. Even low levels of air pollution can cause health problems.

Symptoms that may be caused by outdoor air pollution

Irritation in your eyes, nose and throat Wheezing, coughing and breathing difficulties Tightness in your chest Worsening of existing lung disease ( asthma , COPD , etc.) and heart problems Some people can notice symptoms from air pollution right away. For example, a person with asthma might find it hard to breathe after 10 minutes outside on a smoggy day. For other people, it may take longer to notice the health effects of outdoor air pollution. Even if you can’t feel a problem right away, it’s still possible that exposure to air pollution is hurting your health over the long term.

Who is most at risk of getting sick from outdoor air pollution?

children seniors people with lung disease, including asthma and COPD people with heart disease people with suppressed immune systems Even healthy people can have breathing problems on days when there’s air pollution.

How does air pollution enter the body?

Your body has a natural cleaning and repair system that helps keep larger particles from hurting your lungs. There is a thin layer of sticky mucous and thousands of tiny hairs (cilia) lining the insides of the breathing tubes in your lungs. If you breathe in germs or particles, the mucous traps the little bits of dirt, and the cilia move together like a wave to push the dirt-filled mucous out of your lungs. Then you cough, spit up, or swallow the mucous, and the dirt is out of your lungs. The problem with some air pollution is that particles are too tiny to be trapped and cleaned out by your mucous and cilia. The tiny pollution particles drift all the way to the tips of your lungs (alveoli) and can cause permanent lung damage. Indoor air contaminants: Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), tobacco smoke, perfume, body odours — from building occupants. Dust, fibreglass, asbestos, gases, including formaldehyde — from building materials. Toxic vapours, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) — from workplace cleansers, solvents, pesticides, disinfectants, glues. Gases, vapours, odours — off-gas emissions from furniture, carpets, and paints. Dust mites — from carpets, fabric, foam chair cushions. Microbial contaminants, fungi, moulds, bacteria, — from damp areas, stagnant water and condensate pans. Ozone — from photocopiers, electric motors, electrostatic air cleaners. Results: dryness and irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and skin, headache, fatigue, shortness of breath, hypersensitivity and allergies, sinus congestion, coughing and sneezing, dizziness, and/or nausea.

Keep your home clean and dust-free. Don’t let anyone smoke in your home. Minimize the use of potential contaminants by finding substitutes or eliminating them altogether. Clean (or report) any spills or leaks. If working in a contaminant-producing area, ensure contaminant sources are contained (e.g. work under fume hoods, clean up spills, keep doors and windows closed). Take your shoes off when you enter the house. The soil outside your home can contain a number of substances you do not want inside Indoor air quality is a vital component of your home’s heating and cooling system. After all, you’ve probably heard about the impact air quality can have on your health, especially on those who suffer from allergies. And who hasn’t experienced the physical discomfort of breathing stale of stagnant air? But better indoor air quality also has another benefit. It makes your home a more comfortable, welcome place. You feel warmer in the winter. And cooler in the summer. Which means you won’t be cranking up the furnace of A.C. as much. In fact, you may be able to save up to eighteen percent on your energy bills, season after season. An air Filtration System goes a long way towards cleaning air you breathe by minimizing particles in the air. Your lungs will appreciate the cleaner air, of course. And so will your heating and cooling system. An air Filtration system can keep furnace and central air systems operating at peak efficiency, which could cut down on repair bills later on. Individuals can take action at the local level to reduce energy use at home, on the road, at work, and at play. They can also take advantage of a number of tips (with interesting facts) and other resources to help them reduce the amount of air pollution that they create. Community action is also important. Organizing outreach activities to promote greater community involvement is a very effective way of achieving progress. Communities, along with their municipal governments, can become involved in planning more sustainable forms of landuse and transportation as well as developing community social marketing programs to promote necessary changes. Industry can also do its part, by adopting pollution prevention measures, pollution control technology, improving energy efficiency, switching to renewable sources, and using cleaner fuels. Many companies are improving their green image to attract growing numbers of environmentally conscious consumers.

Clean, safe air is essential in protecting the health of our people and our communities. As part of its commitment to clean up Ontario’s air, the McGuinty government has posted two new regulations that require industry to reduce their emissions of harmful air pollutants. Both of these regulations achieve commitments made in the government’s Five-Point Action Plan for Cleaner Air , announced on June 21, 2004. Regulation 194/05 Industry Emissions – Nitrogen Oxides and Sulphur Dioxide addresses points one and two of the five-point action plan: Applying tough nitrogen oxides (NO x ) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) limits — two of the most significant smog-causing pollutants — to more industrial sectors than ever before. Making the NO x and SO 2 limits even stricter in future years. Regulation 419/05 Air Pollution – Local Air Quality with better provincial standards for harmful air pollutants addresses points three to five of the plan: Setting new air standards, in some cases for the first time, for many harmful pollutants, including carcinogens and toxins that could pose a threat to human health. Achieving a better picture of industrial emissions through updated technology. Introducing a faster, risk-based approach to implementing new air standards.

Cost of air pollution

According to Science magazine, exposure to air pollution affects “death rates, hospitalizations and medical visits, complications of asthma and bronchitis, days of work lost, restricted-activity days, and a variety of measures of lung damage.” A World Health Organization study of France, Switzerland and Austria found that their health costs due to traffic pollution amounted to approximately 1.7 percent of GDP, dramatically more than the cost of treating injuries from traffic accidents. Source: CNN.com “Traffic pollution ‘kills thousands every year’ “ September 1, 2000 In Canada, the province of Ontario estimates that air pollution costs its 12 million residents at least $1 billion annually in hospital admissions, emergency room visits and worker absenteeism. Source: Ontario Medical Association, “The Illness Costs of Air Pollution Ontario” June 2000 And the World Bank reports that in China – home to some of the most polluted air in the world – the deaths and illnesses of urban residents due to air pollution cost an estimated 5 percent of GDP.

Ways to Reduce Air Pollution

We make choices every day that can help reduce air pollution. Below are a few ideas that you can take to help clean our air. At Home Conserve energy – turn off appliances and lights when you leave the room. Recycle paper, plastic, glass bottles, cardboard, and aluminum cans. (This conserves energy and reduces production emissions.) Keep woodstoves and fireplaces well maintained. You should also consider replacing old wood stoves with EPA-certified models. Plant deciduous trees in locations around your home to provide shade in the summer, but to allow light in the winter. Buy green electricity-produced by low-or even zero-pollution facilities. Connect your outdoor lights to a timer or use solar lighting. Wash clothes with warm or cold water instead of hot. Lower the thermostat on your water heater to 120F. Use low-VOC or water-based paints, stains, finishes, and paint strippers. Test your home for radon-a dangerous, radioactive gas that is odorless and tasteless. If the test shows elevated levels of radon, the problem can be fixed cost effectively. Choose not to smoke in your home, especially if you have children. If you or your visitors must smoke, then smoke outside. Buy Smart Buy ENERGY STAR products, including energy efficient lighting and appliances. They are environmentally friendly products. For more information, Choose efficient, low-polluting models of vehicles. Choose products that have less packaging and are reusable. Shop with a canvas bag instead of using paper and plastic bags. Buy rechargeable batteries for devices used frequently. Drive Wise Plan your trips. Save gasoline and reduce air pollution. Keep tires properly inflated and aligned. In the summertime, fill gas tank during cooler evening hours to cut down on evaporation. Avoid spilling gas and don’t “top off” the tank. Replace gas tank cap tightly. Avoid waiting in long drive-thru lines, for example, at fast-food restaurants or banks. Park your car and go in. When possible, use public transportation, walk, or ride a bike. Get regular engine tune ups and car maintenance checks (especially for the spark plugs). Use an energy-conserving (EC) grade motor oil. Ask your employer to consider flexible work schedules or telecommuting. Report smoking vehicles to your local air agency. Join a carpool or vanpool to get to work. For Your Health Check daily air quality forecasts, which tell how clean or polluted your air is, and the associated health concerns. Remove indoor asthma triggers from your home and avoid outdoor triggers in order to effectively control your asthma. Visit www.epa.gov/asthma to learn more about asthma triggers and ways to avoid them. Minimize your sun exposure. Wear sun block and UV protection sunglasses. To find out about current forecasts of UV where you live, go to www.epa.gov/sunwise/uvindex.html .

Water is the best of all things.

Pindar (c. 522-438 B.C.), Olympian Odes The human body is 70% water, the brain is 85% water, blood is 90% water… the human liver, one of our most vital organs is 96% water! It’s a logical assumption that the quality of the water we drink will have a very significant effect on our overall health. Hydration Tips Drink at least eight 8-ounce servings of water each day. The more active you are, the more water you need to replenish lost fluids. Don’t wait until you’re thirsty to drink water. By the time you feel thirsty, you have probably already lost two or more cups of your total body water composition. Drink plenty of water throughout the day. Convenience is a must, so carry a bottle of water with you as you commute to work, run errands or enjoy a day at the beach. While at work, keep a bottle of water on your desk, or visit the office water cooler and take a water break rather than a coffee break. Don’t substitute beverages with alcohol or caffeine for water. Caffeine and alcohol act as diuretic beverages and can cause you to lose water through increased urination. Once you start exercising, drink water throughout your workout. Keep a bottle of water with you and take frequent water breaks. Don’t underestimate the amount of fluids lost from perspiration. Following a workout, you need to drink two cups of water for each pound lost. Start and end your day with water. Your body loses water while you sleep, so drink a serving before bed and again when you wake up. Common colds and the flu frequently lead to dehydration. Keep a large bottle of water next to your bed so you can sip it throughout the day without having to get up. Cool water – not carbonated beverages or sports drinks – is the best fluid for keeping hydrated when it’s warm outside. Cool water is absorbed much more quickly than warm fluids and may help to cool off your overheated body. If you’re going to be away from home or outdoors, make sure you keep a bottle of water close by. Make sure your children drink enough water. . Children need water to balance their intake of other beverages – especially during activities. Packing bottled water in a child’s lunch instead of juice or regular soda can also help prevent childhood obesity.

How much soap or detergent should be used in softened water?

When first using softened water for household cleaning chores, it is best to use as little soap as possible. If necessary, the homeowner can gradually increase the quantity to produce the desired results. The habit of using far too much soap is not easily broken. Therefore, anyone contacting the customer should stress the coffee measure as being adequate rather than the cup or more that may have been necessary prior to the installation of a water softener.

Can softened water be used for a steam iron?

Neither hard nor soft water should be used with a steam iron. Demineralized or distilled water alone is acceptable for use over a period of time. Remember, that the softening of water does not remove the minerals.

What general procedures should be used with household dishwashers?

In any case, the instructions of the dishwasher manufacturer should be followed. However, these may be supplemented with the following general considerations. Avoid the use of sudsing soaps or synthetic detergents as the suds which develop can “muffle” the spray action used in most dishwashers to provide scrubbing action. A number of washing compounds are on the market which have been specifically formulated for dishwashers. Included are such brand names as Calgonite and Electro-Sol. These materials do not generally contain any soap – they depend upon the presence of greases and oils on the dishes to produce a cleaning solution. Even with the use of soft water, spotting of dishes is sometimes reported. In some cases, the cause may be traced to the use of too much washing compound or the use of the wrong material, as outlined above. In other cases, the dishwasher is loaded too heavily and improper cleaning occurs. Another common cause of spotting is too rapid drying. Ideally, the dishes should first be allowed to drain completely in a humid atmosphere so that the water with its minerals runs off, rather than evaporates. In some cases, the water temperature is too high and the water evaporates rather than drains. In other cases, the dishwasher lid opens at the end of the cycle and allows cool air to contact the utensils. This, too, results in rapid evaporation. Depending upon the construction of the dishwasher, it may be possible to adjust one or both of these factors to improve the results significantly.

How can iron stains be removed from fabrics?

Iron stains can be removed from most washable fabrics with oxalic acid, provided certain precautions are taken. Oxalic acid can be obtained at most drug stores. A solution of the oxalic acid may be made up by simply dissolving the crystals in water. The solubility of the acid is only about 10% so, it cannot be made too strong. The solution should be prepared in an enamelled or plastic container, never in a bare metal pail. A small amount of the solution should be tried on the inside of a hem or other inconspicuous location as the acid may bleach certain dyes. If, it is apparent that no bleaching has occurred, the entire garment may be repeatedly dipped in the solution. The dipping should continue until the iron stains are gone. Allowing the garment to soak in the acid solution is not recommended. After the stains have disappeared, the garment should be thoroughly rinsed in several changes of fresh water. To be sure that any remaining acid has been neutralized, the garment should be immediately laundered in the normal manner with the regular amount of soap. The alkalinity in the soap will eliminate the last traces of acidity. The acid solution may be poured down the drain but it should be followed with a thorough flushing with fresh water.

How can the sodium content of a softened water be determined in terms of milligrams of sodium?

1. First, determine the sodium content of the natural water. Multiply the water’s sodium content in grains per gallon expressed as calcium carbonate, by 7.866. This will give you the sodium content of the water in milligrams per litre of water. 2. Next determine the additional sodium content of water as a result of ion exchange softening. Here multiply the total hardness of the water in grains per gallon, expressed as calcium carbonate, by 7.866. 3. A simple addition of the results of both steps 1 & 2 will give the sodium content of the softened water in milligrams of sodium per litre. One litre (slightly more than a quart) is commonly accepted as normal water consumption. Actually, the amount of sodium present in softened water is small when compared to the sodium present in foods.

Is the sodium in softened water harmful to people on restrictive salt diets?

Much depends on the strictness of the diet itself. Where the patient is on an extremely restrictive diet, he should drink neither hard nor softened water. Under these conditions, he should have demineralized water, distilled water or water known to be free of sodium for drinking and for the cooking of his foods. Such patients are commonly hospitalized. In establishing a salt-free diet for patients, physicians should not overlook the fact that even hard water may contain appreciable amounts of sodium. To determine the amount a complete analysis of the water is necessary.

How can you calculate the amount of salt concentration in a septic tank?

If the liquid capacity of the tank is known, multiply the figure by 8.33 to determine the amount of water in pounds. If the liquid capacity is unknown, multiply the capacity in cubic feet by .80 (approximately 20% of the chamber will be filled with air at all times). Now multiply this figure by 62.33 to obtain the pounds of water in the tank. Compare the end figure (the total pounds of water) with the number of pounds of salt in the projected softener regeneration dosage. The pounds of salt should not exceed one percent of total amount of water in pounds in the tank.

Does a water softener have any harmful effect on a septic tank?

The backwash and brining effluents from a softener can be discharged into a septic tank. The latter should, however, be properly installed and of adequate size to ensure satisfactory results. Proper sizing of the septic tank is highly important. While many states recommend units with a minimum of a 500 gallon capacity, even smaller units may provide adequate liquid capacity in relation to the amount of salts discharged by the softener. Many public health authorities recognize that softener regeneration wastes can be safely discharged into septic tanks. The Public Health Service in a “Manual of Septic Tank Practice” writes: “Waste brines from household water softener units have no adverse effect on the action of the septic tank but, may cause a slight shortening of the life of a disposal field installed in a structured clay-type soil.” From this, it is evident that the type of soil in which the disposal field is situated must be taken into consideration. High concentrations of sodium salts deposited in certain types of soil over a period of time would result in loss of permeability. When this occurs, the soil cannot absorb and transmit the waste water. As a result, the absorption capacity of the drain field gradually decreases. On the other hand, the calcium and magnesium ions discharged by the softener may tend to open up the soil, reversing the clogging action of the sodium salts. To date, there are no reports on file of the failure of a distribution field to absorb the sodium salts due to softener regeneration wastes. In the event a serious doubt exists regarding the effect of the sodium wastes on the distribution field, the brine could be discharged into a dry well. Generally, a dry well (a hole filled with course gravel) will serve for many years. However, the use of a dry well should be necessary only in extremely few instances. There is some advantage in the use of fully automatic softeners where the discharge into the brine tank may be a problem. These softeners can be set to recharge frequently but, with smaller amounts of salt. Fully automatic softeners use from 40 to 80 gallons of water per recharging. With the operation requiring about one hour, the water flow rate is low. Further, the process is normally set to occur between midnight and 5:00 a.m., a time when little or no water is being used in the house. Under these conditions, a softener places far less burden on the capacity of the septic tank than do such water-using appliances as automatic dishwashers, washing machines or toilets, etc.

Will soft water produce clearer ice cubes?

Actually, removing calcium and magnesium from the water has little effect on the quality of ice prepared in the home. Here again, the reason is that softening the water does not reduce the total mineral concentration. For example, to the extent that a softener removes sediment, iron and manganese from water, this would help to produce a least cleaner ice. Filters, of course, can be helpful in removing iron, turbidity, tastes and odours from water used for ice-making. The use of polyphosphates is an economical method of treating water used in typical restaurant ice-making units. The polyphosphates keep the minerals in the water dispersed and in this way minimize the cloudy appearance of ice cubes. If fed in proper concentrations, polyphosphates also control scale formation and corrosion in the ice cube machine. Approximately 5 ppm are recommended for scale prevention and 10 ppm for both scale prevention and corrosion control.

Q&A | Aqua Technologies Inc. | Air and Water Purification

软水中的钠会导致水面上出现斑点行政人员2020-12-02T20:29:44-05:00

软水中的钠会导致水面上出现斑点

你可能想知道，为什么软水器在去除钙、镁等矿物质的同时，却不能降低总溶解固体（TDS）含量。.

这是因为软水器利用了离子。交换流程代替含钠离子的硬质矿物。.

由于钠离子与钙离子和镁离子发生交换，水的总溶解固体（TDS）含量不会直接受到影响。每去除一个钙离子或镁离子，就会添加一个钠离子。水中矿物质含量越高，软化过程中交换的钠就越多。软化后水的钠含量完全取决于水的初始硬度。.

软化水对于清洁和沐浴来说当然更好，而且延长家电的使用寿命例如你的洗衣机和热水器。然而，你看到的软水斑点实际上可能是钠斑点。.

当水从干净的餐具上蒸发或洗完车后，可能会留下粉状的钠残留物。.

好消息是，钠渍很容易用毛巾擦掉。但皂垢和水垢就没那么容易擦掉了。此外，用手彻底擦干汽车或餐具，而不是让它们自然风干，也能避免钠渍的产生。.

冬季保养软水器行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:50-05:00

冬季保养软水器

冬季如何保养您的软水器——您需要了解的内容

来源：WQA

您的软水器或过滤器需要冬季保养吗？如果需要，冬季保养都包括哪些内容？这取决于具体情况……

如果您将软水器或过滤器放置在有人居住的房屋的地下室，则无需担心冬季维护问题。但如果您有以下任何一种情况，则需要对您的系统进行冬季维护：

安装在未供暖车库中的设备
冬天不用的度假屋
你离开家，开始一段漫长的冬季假期

在所有这些情况下，采取预防措施以确保软水器在冰点以下的温度下得到保护是明智之举。管道冻结可能导致管道爆裂，从而对您的房屋和水处理设备造成重大损失。.

让我们来看一些有用的建议。.

隔热和额外供暖

对于计划在冬季继续使用软水器的人来说，可以采取一些简单的措施来确保软水器在寒冷天气中不会结冰。.

如果你居住在气候温和的地区，冬季气温不会特别低，那么给管道和水箱做保温就足以保护你的供水系统过冬了。你可以在任何一家家居建材商店买到管道保温材料。给水管安装电热带或电热电缆也是个不错的选择。.

对于软水器储罐，一些房主会在储罐周围建造一个保温箱。您也可以购买管道保温材料，或者用保温毯包裹储罐。甚至还有专门为软水器储罐设计的保温套。.

由于盐分饱和，你的盐水箱只有在气温降至零度以下的极寒气候下才有可能结冰。.

如果您全年都在使用软水器，最重要的是保持其温度足够高以防止结冰，因此在车库里放置一个空间加热器会有所帮助。.

记住，只需将温度保持在华氏32度以上即可，使用电暖器时务必始终按照制造商的说明采取安全预防措施。仅在确定必要时才开启电暖器。.

流动的水也能防止管道结冰。如果您只外出几天，可以打开水龙头，让水慢慢流过，保持管道内的水流。虽然这并非万无一失，但有时确实可以防止管道完全冻结和爆裂。.

软水器的排水和断开连接

如果您不打算在冬季使用软水器，并且您家中的暖气也会在冬季关闭，那么您应该按照特定的步骤断开、排空和存放您的系统。.

建议您排空水箱。这样可以确保系统中不会残留任何可能结冰并造成损坏的水。您需要将软水器置于再生循环中，并等待直到看到系统将水反冲洗到排水管中。.

此时，如果您的软水机配有手动旁通阀，应将其置于旁通位置，以切断软水机的供水。这样可以隔离并保护您的系统，使其与建筑物的其他供水系统隔离。.

将装置从旁通阀上拆下，然后从水箱上拆下阀门。立管露出后，使用足够长的 3/8 英寸至 1/2 英寸塑料软管连接立管底部和下部分配器。此时建议从介质箱中虹吸出水。.

虹吸过程较慢，可以确保将水箱中的水全部排出。虹吸管停止出水后，让水箱静置 5 到 10 分钟。这段时间可以让水完全沉淀到滤材箱底部。此时，您可以尝试虹吸剩余的沉淀水。.

大部分积水应该从盐水箱中舀出，但剩下的溶液由于含盐量高，不应该结冰。.

请查阅用户手册以获取有关如何彻底排空水箱的详细说明，或致电水处理专业人员寻求帮助。.

接下来，拔掉软水器的插头或关闭电源开关。.

盐水箱可以放在寒冷的地方，但软水箱可能需要完全取出并存放在较温暖的地方。.

还有疑问？请咨询水权专家！

清澈的水是干净的吗？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:50-05:00

清澈的水是干净的吗？

以下CNN报道指出，清澈的水并不总是干净的水的标志。.

http://www.cnn.com/2017/11/09/health/cdc-water-contamination-reports/index.html

水垢沉积的原因是什么？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

水垢沉积的原因是什么？

如果你的水质偏软，即硬度矿物质含量低，通常不会出现水垢问题。但是，如果你家的水质偏硬（大多数人都是如此），而且未经处理，就会在水龙头等处看到碳酸钙沉积。那么，水垢的形成原因是什么呢？

当水中钙离子浓度过饱和时，钙离子无法继续溶解，会被挤出水面，与碳酸氢根离子结合形成方解石状的碳酸钙。造成钙离子过饱和的主要原因有两个：

温度升高，最明显的表现就是水壶和加热元件上出现水垢。.
pH值升高通常是由于碳酸挥发成二氧化碳（CO2）导致压力下降造成的（想想打开可乐瓶时“嘶嘶”一声的声音）。酸度降低会导致pH值迅速升高。你可能已经注意到饮水机附近有冷水结垢。.

我看到一些广告宣传“无需加盐”的水处理剂。它们不用盐是怎么工作的？凯文2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

我看到一些广告宣传“无需加盐”的水处理剂。它们不用盐是怎么工作的？

1. 许多经销商会宣传无需盐水的软水器。任何品牌的软水器都可以不用盐运行。这是通过使用氯化钾这种盐替代品来实现的。氯化钾的价格通常是普通食盐（氯化钠）的两倍，而且在某些地区可能难以买到。此外，使用盐替代品时，建议将控制阀上的盐浓度设置增加约 10 倍。这是因为盐替代品向树脂珠提供所需负离子的效率不如普通食盐。.

2. 有些公司提供催化过滤器和/或磁性或防垢装置来“软化”水，这些装置不使用盐，也不使用任何其他东西来再生其产品。. 买家当心！如果真有技术能替代树脂基水处理剂，那人人都得卖了。反正我肯定会买。那些盐袋可真沉！
如果您现在使用的是软水器，那么换用价格过高的“除垢”产品后，您一定会非常不满意。.
多年来，很多尝试过的人都跟我说过类似的话。.

更多详情，我推荐您阅读这位退休化学家撰写的网页。. http://www.chem1.com/CQ/
还有这个，, http://www.uswatersystems.com/blog/2010/12/no-sal…
还有这个，, http://ths.gardenweb.com/forums/load/plumbing/msg…
请先做好功课，不要轻易把大笔钱浪费在听起来好得令人难以置信的事情上。.

另一位顾客写道/问道：

我曾考虑过换用无盐水处理系统。您对这类设备有什么看法？ www.nuvoh2o.com 他们声称每年只需更换两次滤芯，几乎无需维护？

***
我的看法是它们没用……它们既不能软化水质，也不能去除水中的锰或铁。.

他们的“防垢”工艺效果非常有限。任何享受过真正“水质处理”水的人，如果改用这种价格过高的方法，都会感到失望。.

你不会在他们的网站上找到那些“客户评价”。.

而滤芯实际上就是碳过滤器，因为滤材不能承受供水中的氯，所以必须先去除氯。.

大多数经销商使用装有 1 立方英尺活性炭的全尺寸罐，而不是“滤芯”，以获得更好的流速，并延长活性炭的更换周期（根据应用情况，每 1-5 年更换一次）。.

什么是NSF认证？凯文2014-09-21T16:20:13-05:00

什么是NSF认证？

每天，数以百万计的人们理所当然地认为食品、饮用水和消费品的安全无虞。为什么？因为三个字母：NSF。NSF认证是确保您使用的产品符合严格的公共卫生保护标准的关键。.

选择经 NSF 认证的产品，意味着该公司符合 NSF 制定的严格标准和流程。从全面的产品测试和材料分析，到突击工厂检查，产品开发的每一个环节都经过严格评估，方可获得我们的认证。.

最重要的是，NSF认证并非一次性事件，而是包括对生产设施的定期现场检查和对产品的定期复测，以确保产品持续符合维持认证所需的各项高标准。如果产品因任何原因未能满足一项或多项认证标准，NSF将采取强制措施保护您的权益，包括产品召回、发布公告或取消认证。.

获得 NSF 认证的产品被称为“NSF 认证”或“NSF 列名”，并显示相应的 NSF 认证标志，以表明它们已经过当今最受尊敬的独立产品测试机构之一的测试。.

什么是软水机？凯文2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

什么是软水机？

1. 硬水

1.1 什么是硬水？

当水被称为‘硬水’时，这仅仅意味着它比普通水含有更多的矿物质，尤其是钙和镁。水的硬度随着矿物质含量的增加而增加。钙和镁溶解。.
镁和钙是带正电荷的离子。由于它们的存在，其他带正电荷的离子在硬水中的溶解度会比在不含钙和镁的水中低。.
这就是肥皂在硬水中不易溶解的原因。.

1.2 哪些行业重视水的硬度？

在许多工业应用中，例如饮用水制备、啤酒厂和汽水厂，以及冷却水和锅炉给水，水的硬度都非常重要。.

2. 水软化

2.1 什么是软化水？

当水中含有大量钙和镁时，就称为硬水。硬水容易堵塞管道，并且会影响肥皂和洗涤剂在水中的溶解。.
软化水是一种去除导致水质变硬的离子的技术，在大多数情况下是钙离子和镁离子。. 铁软化过程中也可能去除离子。.
软化水的最佳方法是使用软水机并将其直接连接到供水系统。.

2.2 什么是软水机？

软水器是一种用于软化水的设备，它通过去除导致水变硬的矿物质来实现这一目的。.

2.3 为什么要进行水软化处理？

水软化是一个重要的过程，因为在此过程中可以降低家庭和公司用水的硬度。.
水质过硬会导致管道堵塞，肥皂也难以溶解。软化水可以避免这些负面影响。.
硬水会导致家庭供水系统中水垢沉积的风险更高。水垢堆积会堵塞管道，降低热水锅炉和水箱的效率，从而使家庭热水成本增加约 15% 至 20%。.
水垢的另一个负面影响是它会对家用机械（如洗衣机）造成损害。.
水软化可以延长家用电器（例如洗衣机）和管道的使用寿命。它还有助于提高太阳能供暖系统、空调机组和许多其他用水设备的运行效率和使用寿命。.

2.4 软水器有什么作用？

软水器是一种专门用于去除带正电荷的离子的离子交换器。.
软水器主要去除钙（Ca）²⁺）和镁（Mg）²⁺离子。钙和镁通常被称为‘硬度矿物’。.
软化器有时甚至可以用来去除水中的铁。软化装置能够去除每升水中高达五毫克（5 mg/L）的溶解铁。.
软水器可分为全自动、半自动和手动三种操作方式。每种软水器都以其在需要再生之前能够去除的硬度量来衡量性能。.

软水器会在其处理罐内收集硬度矿物质，并定期将其冲洗到排水管中。.
离子交换器常用于水软化。当使用离子交换器软化水时，它会用其他离子（例如磷酸盐、镁离子等）替换水中的钙离子和镁离子。钠或者钾. 将交换离子以钠盐和钾盐（NaCl 和 KCl）的形式添加到离子交换器储罐中。.

2.5 软水机能用多久？

一台好的软水机可以使用很多年。上世纪80年代生产的软水机可能现在还能用，而且除了偶尔加盐之外，很多都不需要维护。.

3. 软化盐

3.1 市面上销售的用于软水机的盐有哪些类型？

用于软化水的盐一般分为三种：
岩盐
太阳盐
蒸发盐

岩盐是一种天然存在于地下的矿物。它是通过传统采矿方法从地下盐矿床中提取的。它含有98%至99%的氯化钠。其水不溶性约为0.5-1.5%，主要成分是硫酸钙。硫酸钙是其最重要的成分。.
太阳盐是一种天然产品，主要通过海水蒸发制得。它含有85%氯化钠，水不溶性低于0.03%。太阳盐通常以晶体形式出售，有时也以颗粒形式出售。.
蒸发盐是通过开采地下溶解盐矿床获得的。然后利用天然气或煤炭提供的能量将水分蒸发掉。蒸发盐中氯化钠的含量在99.6%至99.991%之间。.

3.2 软水器中应该使用岩盐、蒸发盐还是太阳盐？

岩盐含有大量不溶于水的物质。因此，使用岩盐时，软水池需要更频繁地清洗。岩盐比蒸发盐和太阳能盐便宜，但清洗软水池可能会耗费您大量的时间和精力。.

太阳能盐比蒸发盐含有更多不溶于水的物质。选择使用哪种盐时，应考虑用盐量、软水器清洗频率以及软水器的设计。如果用盐量不大，可以交替使用这两种产品。.
如果用盐量过大，使用太阳能盐时，不溶性盐的积累速度会更快。此外，储盐罐需要更频繁地清洗。在这种情况下，建议使用蒸发盐。.

3.3 在软水器中混合不同种类的盐有害吗？

通常情况下，在软水机中混合使用不同的软水盐并无害处，但有些软水机是专为特定的软水产品设计的。如果使用其他软水产品，这些软水机将无法正常工作。.
不建议将蒸发盐与岩盐混合使用，因为这可能会堵塞软水器储盐罐。建议您在添加另一种盐之前，先让软水器中的一种盐完全排空，以免出现任何问题。.

3.4 软水器多久加一次盐比较合适？

软水器再生过程中通常需要向储水箱中添加盐。软水器再生次数越多，需要添加盐的频率也就越高。.
通常情况下，软水器每月检查一次。为保证软水产量达标，盐位应始终保持至少半满。.

3.5 为什么有时加盐后水质并没有变软？

盐在软水器中开始发挥作用之前，需要在储液罐中停留一段时间，因为盐溶解缓慢。如果在向储液罐中加盐后立即启动再生程序，软水器可能无法正常工作。.
如果水没有软化，也可能表明软水器出现故障，或者所使用的盐有问题。.

4. 降低成本

4.1 软水机多少钱？

软水机的效率各不相同，因此价格也会有所差异。市面上有定时软水机和水表控制软水机。水表控制软水机每磅盐能产生最软的水。.
有些软水器使用电力，但一些较新的软水器则使用水力。软水器的成本很大程度上取决于软水器的类型和所使用的能源类型，也取决于需要软化的水的硬度和用水量。当水质硬度很高且用水量很大时，软化成本就会增加。.

一般来说，软水器的成本每天在 $ 0.20 到 $ 0.40 之间。.
通常情况下，软水机的成本远低于使用软水所带来的好处和成本节省。.

4.2 软水机运行成本是多少？

运行成本仅仅是盐的成本。这大概是每个家庭成员每月每人花费 $ 1.95 左右。.

5. 软化饮用水

5.1 生产水的企业总是生产软化水吗？

虽然自来水生产企业有机会生产软化水，但他们并非总是会这样做。自来水生产企业只需在其水净化系统中添加一台软水机，即可低成本地生产软化水。.
但这样一来，消费者就无法选择饮用未经软化的水了。.
硬水问题最容易在水被加热时出现。因此，硬水很少给供水公司带来问题，尤其是在管道中只流过冷水的情况下。.

5.2 软化水可以安全饮用吗？

软化水仍然含有我们所需的所有天然矿物质。它只是去除了钙和镁，并在软化过程中添加了少量钠。因此，在大多数情况下，软化水完全可以安全饮用。建议软化水中的钠含量不超过300毫克/升。.
在硬度非常高的地区，由于软化过程后钠含量很高，因此不能使用软化水来冲泡婴儿奶粉。.

5.3 软水装置中的盐分会进入饮用水吗？

盐分没有机会通过软化装置进入饮用水中。.
软水器中盐的唯一作用是再生去除水中硬度的树脂珠。.

5.4 人体从软化水中会吸收多少钠？

软化水中钠的吸收量取决于水的硬度。平均而言，饮用软化水所吸收的钠少于3%。.
据估计，一个人每天从各种来源摄入约两到三茶匙盐。假设每天通过食物摄入五克钠，并饮用三夸脱水，那么家用软水过程中水中钠（Na+）的含量与许多富含钠的食物的每日总摄入量相比微乎其微。.

5.5 软化饮用水会使其失去必需的矿物质吗？

软化水不会去除水中必需的矿物质。软化只会去除饮用水中导致水质变硬的矿物质，例如钙、镁和铁。.

6. 软水器维护

6.1 软化器树脂何时需要更换？

如果水软化效果不佳，首先应检查所用盐是否存在问题，或者软水器部件是否出现机械故障。如果这些因素都不是软化效果不佳的原因，则可能需要更换软水树脂，甚至更换整个软水器。.
根据经验，我们知道大多数软化树脂和离子交换树脂的使用寿命约为 20 至 25 年。.

6.2 软水器盐水箱需要清洗吗？

通常情况下，除非所用的盐产品含有大量不溶于水的物质，或者出现某种严重故障，否则无需清理盐水箱。.
如果树脂中积聚了不溶性物质，应清理储液罐，以防止软水器发生故障。.

6.3 什么是‘网状化’？我们为什么要避免它？

当在树脂中使用松散的盐粒或块状盐时，可能会形成类似食盐的微小蒸发盐晶体。这些晶体可能会相互粘连，在盐水箱中形成厚厚的结块。这种现象通常被称为‘结块’，可能会中断盐水的产生。盐水的产生是软水器中树脂珠更新的关键。如果没有盐水的产生，软水器就无法产生软水。.

7. 软化器操作问题

7.1 软水器排放的盐水会损坏化粪池吗？

水质协会已就此主题进行过研究。这些研究表明，位置正确且运行良好的化粪池不会因软水器排放的盐水而受损。而且，软化水有时甚至有助于减少排入化粪池的洗涤剂用量。.

7.2 软水器可以与铅管一起使用吗？

铅管系统必须更换，软化水才能流经其中。虽然硬水地区的铅管系统可能不会造成问题，但建议还是更换。当天然或人工软化的水流入这些铅管系统时，可能会导致铅的沉积。.

7.2 能否在线测量水的硬度？

是的，虽然该测量系统主要应用于工业软水器。.

8. 家庭内部关系缓和

8.1 搬家时可以带走软水机吗？

现代软水器便于携带，搬家时可以轻松带走。安装方式采用快速连接，类似于洗衣机的安装方式。.
只需关闭软水器的进水阀和出水阀，打开旁通阀，让硬水流向储水箱和家用水龙头即可。之后，即可断开软水器，将其移至新的位置并安装到位。.

8.2 软水机的废水可以直接排放到花园里吗？

由于盐水会改变植物赖以调节水分需求的渗透压，因此应避免直接排放氯化钠或氯化钾盐水。.

8.3 软化水对改善皮肤干燥有帮助吗？

值得注意的是，有些皮肤干燥的人从软化水的过程中受益，因为软水对头发和皮肤更温和。.

什么是反渗透？凯文2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

什么是反渗透？

反渗透（通常称为 RO）是一种通过加压将水通过半透膜反渗透膜来去除水中矿物质或离子的过程。.

渗透作用

要了解反渗透的目的和过程，首先必须了解自然界中发生的……过程。渗透作用.

渗透作用是一种自然现象，也是自然界最重要的过程之一。它是指浓度较低的盐溶液向浓度较高的盐溶液移动的过程。例如，植物根系从土壤中吸收水分，以及我们的肾脏从血液中吸收水分，都是渗透作用的例子。.

下图展示了渗透作用的原理。浓度较低的溶液会自然地向浓度较高的溶液迁移。例如，如果一个容器里装满了低盐浓度的水，另一个容器里装满了高盐浓度的水，并且这两个容器之间用半透膜隔开，那么低盐浓度的水就会开始向高盐浓度的水容器中迁移。.

A 半透膜这是一种允许某些原子或分子通过，但阻止其他原子或分子通过的膜。一个简单的例子是纱门。它允许空气分子通过，但阻止害虫或任何比纱门孔径更大的物体通过。另一个例子是戈尔特斯（Gore-tex）服装面料，它包含一层极薄的塑料薄膜，薄膜上切割了数十亿个微小的孔。这些孔足够大，可以让水蒸气通过，但又足够小，可以阻止液态水通过。.

反渗透是指渗透作用的逆过程。. 渗透作用自然发生，无需能量；而要逆转渗透过程，则需要对高盐溶液施加能量。反渗透膜是一种半透膜，允许水分子通过，但阻止大部分溶解的盐分、有机物、细菌和热原通过。然而，要实现脱盐（脱矿质或去离子）过程，需要施加大于自然渗透压的压力，使水‘通过’反渗透膜，从而让纯水通过，同时阻挡大部分污染物。.

下图概述了反渗透过程。当对浓缩溶液施加压力时，水分子被迫通过半透膜，而污染物则被阻挡在外。.

反渗透的工作原理是什么？

反渗透的工作原理是利用高压泵提高反渗透装置盐侧的压力，迫使水流通过半透膜，从而将几乎所有（约95%至99%）溶解的盐分截留在浓缩液中。所需的压力取决于进水的盐浓度。进水浓度越高，克服渗透压所需的压力就越大。.

经过脱盐或去离子处理的淡化水称为渗透水（或产品水）。携带未通过反渗透膜的浓缩污染物的流称为浓水（或浓缩液）。.

当进水在压力下（足以克服渗透压）进入反渗透膜时，水分子会穿过半透膜，而盐分和其他污染物则被阻挡在外，并通过浓水（也称为浓缩液或盐水）排出。浓水最终排入下水道，或者在某些情况下可以回流到进水系统中，循环利用于反渗透系统，从而节约用水。能够穿过反渗透膜的水称为渗透液或产品水，通常其中约有951TP³T至991TP³T的溶解盐被去除。.

需要注意的是，反渗透系统采用的是交叉过滤，而非传统的过滤方式，后者是将污染物截留在滤材内部。交叉过滤中，溶液流经滤膜（或称“交叉过滤”），有两个出口：过滤后的水从一个方向流出，含污染的水从另一个方向流出。为了避免污染物积聚，交叉流过滤能够使水流带走积聚的污染物，并产生足够的湍流以保持膜表面清洁。.

反渗透技术会从水中去除哪些物质？

反渗透技术能够去除进水中高达 99%+ 的溶解盐（离子）、颗粒物、胶体、有机物、细菌和热原（但不能指望反渗透系统去除 100% 的细菌和病毒）。反渗透膜根据污染物的大小和电荷进行截留。任何分子量大于 200 的污染物都可能被运行正常的反渗透系统截留（相比之下，水分子的分子量为 18）。同样，污染物的离子电荷越大，就越难通过反渗透膜。例如，钠离子只有一个电荷（一价），因此不像钙离子那样容易被反渗透膜截留（钙离子有两个电荷）。同样，这也是为什么反渗透系统无法很好地去除二氧化碳等气体的原因，因为它们在溶液中电离程度不高（带电荷），而且分子量很低。由于反渗透系统不去除气体，渗透水的 pH 值可能会略低于正常值，这取决于进水中的 CO2 含量，因为 CO2 会转化为碳酸。.

反渗透技术在处理微咸水、地表水和地下水方面非常有效，适用于各种规模的用水需求。使用反渗透水的行业包括制药、锅炉给水、食品饮料、金属表面处理和半导体制造等等。.

反渗透性能与设计计算

有一些计算方法用于评估反渗透系统的性能，并用于设计考量。反渗透系统配备有仪表，用于显示水质、流量、压力，有时还会显示其他数据，例如温度或运行时间。为了准确测量反渗透系统的性能，至少需要以下运行参数：

1. 进料压力

2. 渗透液压力

3. 集中压力

4. 进料电导率

5. 渗透液电导率

6. 进料流量

7. 渗透液流量

8. 温度

盐去除 %

该公式可以告诉您反渗透膜去除污染物的效率。它并非显示每张膜的具体性能，而是显示整个系统的平均性能。一个设计良好、反渗透膜运行正常的系统，可以去除951TP³T至991TP³T的大多数进水污染物（特定尺寸和电荷的污染物）。您可以使用以下公式来确定反渗透膜去除污染物的效率：

脱盐率越高，系统性能越好。脱盐率低可能意味着膜需要清洗或更换。.

盐通道 %

这实际上是前一个公式中盐截留率的倒数。它表示通过反渗透系统的盐量百分比。盐透过率越低，系统性能越好。盐透过率过高可能意味着膜需要清洗或更换。.

恢复 %

回收率是指被‘回收’为优质渗透水的量。换句话说，回收率是指不作为浓缩液排放，而是作为渗透液或产品水收集的水量。回收率（%）越高，意味着排放到排水处的浓缩液越少，而保留的渗透水越多。然而，如果回收率（%）对于反渗透（RO）系统设计而言过高，则可能导致结垢和污染等更严重的问题。RO系统的回收率（%）是借助设计软件确定的，该软件会考虑诸多因素，例如进水化学性质和RO系统前的预处理。因此，RO系统应运行的合适回收率（%）取决于其设计用途。通过计算回收率（%），您可以快速确定系统是否在超出预期设计范围的情况下运行。回收率（%）的计算方法如下：

例如，如果回收率为 75%，则意味着每 100 加仑进入反渗透系统的进水，可回收 75 加仑可用渗透水，而 25 加仑则作为浓缩液排出。工业反渗透系统的回收率通常在 50% 到 85% 之间，具体取决于进水特性和其他设计因素。.

浓度因子

浓缩倍数与反渗透系统的回收率密切相关，是反渗透系统设计中的一个重要参数。渗透液回收率越高（即%回收率越高），浓缩液中盐类和污染物的浓度也就越高。当浓缩倍数过高，超出系统设计和进水成分的限制时，反渗透膜表面结垢的风险就会增加。.

这个原理与锅炉或冷却塔并无二致。它们都以纯净水（蒸汽）的形式排出系统，最终留下浓缩溶液。随着浓度的增加，溶液的溶解度可能超过极限，并在设备表面沉淀形成水垢。.

例如，如果进料流量为 100 gpm，渗透液流量为 75 gpm，则回收率为 (75/100) x 100 = 75%。要计算浓缩系数，公式为 1 ÷ (1-75%) = 4。.

浓缩倍数为 4 表示进入浓缩液流的水的浓度将是进水的 4 倍。如果本例中的进水浓度为 500 ppm，则浓缩液的浓度为 500 × 4 = 2,000 ppm。.

通量

例如，你有以下内容：
反渗透系统每分钟产水75加仑（gpm）。您有3个反渗透容器，每个容器装有6个反渗透膜。因此，总共有3 x 6 = 18个膜。您反渗透系统中使用的膜型号为陶氏Filmtec BW30-365。这种反渗透膜（或膜元件）的表面积为365平方英尺。.

求通量（Gfd）：

通量为 16 Gfd。.

这意味着每天每平方英尺的RO膜上会通过16加仑的水。这个数值的好坏取决于进水的水质和系统设计。以下是不同水源的通量范围的一般经验法则，使用RO设计软件可以更准确地确定通量。如果在上述示例中使用的是Dow Filmtec LE-440i RO膜，则通量将为14。因此，务必考虑所使用的膜类型，并尽量保持整个系统中膜类型的一致性。.

给水源	政府财政
污水排放	5-10
海水	8-12
微咸地表水	10-14
微咸井水	14-18
反渗透渗透水	20-30

质量平衡

质量平衡方程用于帮助判断您的流量和质量仪表读数是否正确，或者是否需要校准。如果您的仪表读数不正确，那么您收集的性能数据趋势分析就毫无意义。.

要进行质量平衡计算，您需要从反渗透系统中收集以下数据：

1. 进料流量（加仑/分钟）

2. 渗透液流量（加仑/分钟）

3. 浓缩液流量（加仑/分钟）

4. 进料电导率（µS）

5. 渗透液电导率（µS）

6. 浓缩液电导率 (µS)

质量平衡方程为：

（进料流）¹ x 进料电导率）=（渗透流量 x 渗透电导率）
+（浓缩液流量*浓缩液电导率）

¹进料流量等于渗透液流量 + 浓缩液流量
例如，如果您从反渗透系统中收集了以下数据：

渗透液流	5加仑/分钟
进料电导率	500 微秒
渗透电导率	10 微秒
浓缩液流量	2 加仑/分钟
浓缩液电导率	1200 微秒

那么质量平衡方程就是：

（7 x 500）= （5 x 10）+ （2*1200）

3,500 ≠ 2,450

然后找出差异

（差值/总和）* 100

((3,500 – 2,450) / (3,500 + 2,450)) * 100

= 18%

+/- 5% 的偏差是可以接受的。+/- 5% 至 10% 的偏差通常也足够。大于 +/- 10% 的偏差是不可接受的，需要对反渗透 (RO) 仪器进行校准，以确保收集到有效数据。在上述示例中，RO 质量平衡方程超出了正常范围，需要进行调整。.

了解反渗透 (RO) 系统中各级和各步骤之间的区别

期限阶段和经过在反渗透系统中，1 和 2 经常被混淆，这可能会让反渗透操作员感到困惑。理解 1 和 2 之间的区别非常重要。阶段 RO 和 1 和 2 经过 RO。.

单级和双级反渗透系统的区别

在单级反渗透系统中，进水以单一水流进入反渗透系统，并以浓缩液或渗透液的形式离开反渗透系统。.

在两级系统中，第一级的浓缩液（或废液）作为第二级的进水。第一级的渗透液与第二级的渗透液混合。增加级数可以提高系统的回收率。.

大批

在反渗透系统中，“阵列”一词描述了两级系统中压力容器的物理排列方式。压力容器内装有反渗透膜（通常每个压力容器内装有1至6个反渗透膜）。每一级可以包含一定数量的装有反渗透膜的压力容器。每一级的浓缩液随后成为下一级的进料。上一页所示的两级反渗透系统采用2:1阵列，这意味着前两个反渗透容器的浓缩液（或浓缩液）被送入下一个容器。.

带浓缩液回收的反渗透系统

对于无法进行适当分级的反渗透系统，如果进水化学成分允许，则可以使用浓缩液循环装置，将一部分浓缩液流送回第一级进水，以帮助提高系统回收率。.

单程RO与双程RO

想想看经过作为一套独立的反渗透系统。考虑到这一点，单级反渗透系统和双级反渗透系统的区别在于，双级反渗透系统中，第一级反渗透液作为第二级（或第二套反渗透系统）的进水，最终产生更高质量的反渗透液，因为它实际上经过了两套反渗透系统的处理。.

除了能产生更高质量的渗透液外，双级反渗透系统还允许通过在第一级和第二级反渗透之间注入碱液来去除渗透液中的二氧化碳。当反渗透后使用混合床离子交换树脂床时，二氧化碳是不利的。通过在第一级反渗透后添加碱液，可以提高第一级反渗透水的pH值，并将二氧化碳转化为碳酸氢根离子（HCO3-）和碳酸根离子（CO3-2），从而提高第二级反渗透膜的截留率。单级反渗透系统无法实现这一点，因为注入碱液并在钙等阳离子存在的情况下生成碳酸根离子（CO3-2）会导致反渗透膜结垢。.

RO预处理

采用机械和化学方法进行适当的预处理对于反渗透系统至关重要，它可以防止膜污染、结垢，避免因膜过早失效而造成的高昂维修费用和频繁清洗。以下总结了由于缺乏适当的预处理而导致的反渗透系统常见问题。.

污垢

当污染物在膜表面积聚并堵塞膜时，就会发生膜污染。市政供水中含有许多肉眼不可见且对人体无害的污染物，但这些污染物的分子大小足以迅速堵塞反渗透（RO）系统。膜污染通常发生在RO系统的前端，导致RO系统压降增大，渗透液流量降低。这会增加运行成本，最终需要清洗或更换RO膜。鉴于RO膜的孔径极小，无论您的预处理和清洗方案多么有效，膜污染最终都会发生。然而，通过适当的预处理，您可以最大限度地减少定期处理膜污染相关问题的需要。.

结垢可能由以下原因造成：

1.颗粒状或胶体状物质（泥土、淤泥、粘土等）

2. 有机物（腐植酸/富里酸等）

3. 微生物（细菌等）。细菌是造成反渗透膜污染最常见的原因之一，因为目前使用的反渗透膜无法耐受氯等消毒剂，因此微生物常常能够在膜表面滋生繁殖。它们会形成覆盖膜表面的生物膜，导致严重的膜污染。.

4. 反渗透装置上游滤料的穿透。颗粒活性炭（GAC）滤床和软化滤床可能会出现排水泄漏，如果后置过滤措施不足，滤料可能会堵塞反渗透系统。.

通过进行分析测试，您可以确定反渗透系统的进水是否具有较高的结垢风险。为了防止反渗透系统结垢，通常采用机械过滤方法。最常用的防结垢方法是使用多介质过滤器 (MMF) 或微滤 (MF)。在某些情况下，滤芯过滤也足以满足要求。.

规模化

当某些溶解的（无机）化合物浓度升高时（回想一下浓缩倍数的讨论），如果这些化合物超过其溶解度极限，就会在膜表面沉淀形成水垢。水垢会导致系统压降增大、盐透过率升高（脱盐率降低）、渗透流量降低以及渗透水水质下降。反渗透膜上常见的水垢之一是碳酸钙（CaCO₃）。₃).

化学袭击

现代薄膜复合膜不耐氯或氯胺。氯等氧化剂会腐蚀膜孔，造成不可逆的损伤。化学侵蚀反渗透膜会导致渗透流量增加和盐透过率升高（渗透水水质变差）。正因如此，由于缺乏杀菌剂来抑制微生物生长，反渗透膜上微生物的滋生极易导致膜污染。.

机械损伤

预处理方案的一部分应包括反渗透（RO）系统的前后管道和控制系统。如果发生‘硬启动’，可能会对膜造成机械损伤。同样，如果RO系统背压过高，也会对RO膜造成机械损伤。这些问题可以通过使用变频驱动电机启动RO系统的高压泵，以及安装止回阀和/或泄压阀来解决，以防止RO装置背压过高造成永久性膜损伤。.

预处理溶液

以下是一些反渗透系统的预处理解决方案，可以帮助最大限度地减少结垢、结垢和化学侵蚀。.

多介质过滤（MMF）

多介质过滤器用于防止反渗透系统结垢。多介质过滤器通常包含三层滤料，分别为无烟煤、沙子和石榴石，底部有一层砾石作为支撑层。之所以选择这些滤料，是因为它们的尺寸和密度各不相同。较大（但较轻）的无烟煤位于顶部，而较重（但较小）的石榴石则位于底部。这种滤料排列方式使得较大的污垢颗粒在滤料层顶部附近被去除，而较小的污垢颗粒则被截留在滤料层更深处。这样，整个滤料层都能起到过滤作用，从而延长了反冲洗之间的运行时间，并提高了颗粒物去除效率。.

一台运行良好的多介质过滤器可以去除小至 15-20 微米的颗粒物。而添加了混凝剂（使微小颗粒聚集在一起形成足够大的可过滤颗粒）的多介质过滤器则可以去除小至 5-10 微米的颗粒物。为了便于理解，一根头发的直径约为 50 微米。.

当淤泥密度指数 (SDI) 值大于 3 或浊度大于 0.2 NTU 时，建议使用多介质过滤器。虽然没有硬性规定，但应遵循上述指导原则，以防止反渗透膜过早污染。.

为了防止多膜过滤装置（MMF）的底部排水管发生故障，必须在MMF装置后方直接安装一个5微米滤芯过滤器。这样可以避免MMF滤材损坏下游泵并污染反渗透（RO）系统。.

微滤（MF）

微滤 (MF) 能有效去除胶体和细菌，其孔径仅为 0.1-10µm。微滤有助于降低反渗透 (RO) 装置的污染风险。不同制造商的膜结构可能有所不同，但“中空纤维”型是最常用的。通常，水从纤维外部泵入，而净水则从纤维内部收集。用于饮用水处理的微滤膜通常采用“死端流”模式。在死端流模式下，所有进入膜的水都会被过滤。滤饼会形成，必须定期从膜表面进行反冲洗。对于水质较高、浊度较低的进水，回收率通常高于 90%。.

阻垢剂和水垢抑制剂

顾名思义，阻垢剂和固垢抑制剂是添加到反渗透装置进水中的化学物质，用于降低进水结垢的可能性。阻垢剂和固垢抑制剂能够提高难结垢无机化合物的溶解度。通过提高溶解度，可以进一步浓缩盐类，从而获得更高的回收率和更高的浓缩倍数。阻垢剂和固垢抑制剂的作用机制是干扰水垢的形成和晶体的生长。阻垢剂或固垢抑制剂的选择以及正确的用量取决于进水的水质和反渗透系统的设计。.

离子交换软化

软水器可以通过交换结垢离子和非结垢离子来帮助防止反渗透系统中的水垢形成。与多膜过滤装置一样，为了防止软水器底部排水管失效，在软水器后方直接安装一个5微米滤芯过滤器非常重要。.

亚硫酸氢钠（SBS）注射液

在反渗透装置之前，向水流中添加适量的亚硫酸氢钠（SBS 或 SMBS，一种还原剂），可以去除余氯。.

颗粒活性炭（GAC）

颗粒活性炭（GAC）用于去除水中的有机成分和残留消毒剂（例如氯和氯胺）。GAC滤料由煤、坚果壳或木材制成。活性炭通过化学反应去除残留的氯和氯胺，该反应涉及电子从GAC表面转移到残留的氯或氯胺上。氯或氯胺最终转化为氯离子，不再具有氧化性。.

在反渗透装置前使用颗粒活性炭（GAC）的缺点在于，GAC 会迅速去除其顶部的氯。这会导致 GAC 床层剩余部分缺乏杀菌剂来杀灭微生物。GAC 床层会吸收整个床层内的有机物，这些有机物是细菌的潜在食物来源，因此 GAC 床层最终可能成为细菌滋生的温床，这些细菌很容易进入反渗透膜。同样，在某些情况下，GAC 床层会产生非常细小的碳粉，这些碳粉可能会污染反渗透膜。.

RO 数据趋势和标准化

反渗透膜是反渗透系统的核心部件，需要收集一些数据点来判断反渗透膜的健康状况。这些数据点包括系统压力、流量、水质和温度。水温与压力成正比。水温降低时，水的粘度增加，反渗透渗透液流量下降，因为需要更大的压力才能将水推过膜。同样，水温升高时，反渗透渗透液流量增加。因此，必须对反渗透系统的性能数据进行标准化处理，以避免在没有问题的情况下将流量变化解读为异常。应计算标准化后的流量、压力和脱盐率，并将其绘制成图表，与基线数据（反渗透系统调试时或膜清洗/更换后的数据）进行比较，以帮助排查问题，并确定何时需要清洗或检查膜的损坏情况。数据标准化有助于展现反渗透膜的真实性能。一般来说，当标准化后的变化与基线数据相差 +/- 15% 时，就需要采取措施。如果不遵守这条规则，反渗透膜清洗可能无法有效地使膜恢复到接近新膜的性能。.

反渗透膜清洗

反渗透膜不可避免地需要定期清洗，根据进水水质的不同，每年清洗次数为 1 至 4 次。一般来说，如果标准化压降或标准化盐透过率增加了 15%，则需要清洗反渗透膜。如果标准化渗透流量减少了 15%，也需要清洗反渗透膜。您可以选择在原位清洗反渗透膜，也可以将其从反渗透系统中拆卸下来，由专业的服务公司进行异地清洗。实践证明，异地清洗比使用现场清洗设备清洗效果更好。.

反渗透膜清洗需要使用低pH值和高pH值的清洗剂来去除膜上的污染物。结垢使用低pH值清洗剂处理，而有机物、胶体和生物污染则使用高pH值清洗剂处理。反渗透膜清洗不仅仅是使用合适的化学药剂。它还涉及许多其他因素，例如流量、水温和水质、清洗设备的合理设计和尺寸，以及许多其他因素。经验丰富的服务团队必须考虑这些因素才能正确清洗反渗透膜。.

概括

反渗透是一种高效且成熟的技术，可生产适用于众多需要去离子水或脱盐水的工业应用的水。在反渗透系统之后进行进一步的后处理，例如混合床去离子，可以提高反渗透渗透水的质量，使其满足最苛刻的应用需求。对反渗透系统进行适当的预处理和监测对于避免昂贵的维修和计划外维护至关重要。凭借正确的系统设计、维护计划和经验丰富的服务支持，您的反渗透系统应能提供多年的高纯度水。.

什么是硬水？凯文2014-09-13T16:57:28-05:00

什么是硬水？

当水被称为‘硬水’时，这仅仅意味着它比普通水含有更多的矿物质，尤其是钙和镁。水的硬度随着矿物质含量的增加而增加。钙和镁溶解。.

镁和钙是带正电荷的离子。由于它们的存在，其他带正电荷的离子在硬水中的溶解度会比在不含钙和镁的水中低。.
这就是肥皂在硬水中不易溶解的原因。.

什么是空气？凯文2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

什么是空气？

空气是地球‘的气氛. 这是显而易见的气体生物居住的地方呼吸. 它形状和体积都不固定。它没有颜色或者闻. 它有大量的和重量. 这是一个事情因为它有质量和重量。空气产生大气压力. 里面没有空气。真空和宇宙.

空气是一种混合物 78.03% 氮, 20.99% 氧, 0.94% 氩气, 0.03% 二氧化碳, 0.01% 氢, 0.00123%氖, 0.0004% 氦, 0.00005% 氪和 0.000006% 氙.

[1] 此外还有少量其他物品。.

动物和人类都需要氧在空中生存。在人体, ，这肺给……供氧血, 并回馈社会二氧化碳植物需要空气中的二氧化碳才能生存。它们释放氧气，供人类呼吸。.

风空气在流动。空气可能受到污染某些气体（例如）臭氧和一氧化碳), 抽烟, ，和灰. 有些人认为这一点污染可能是其中之一原因的全球暖化, 通过导致“温室效应“。”.

安大略省的空气质量是在改善还是恶化？行政人员2014-01-16T14:42:04-05:00

安大略省的空气质量是在改善还是恶化？

自 1988 年以来，安大略省的空气质量稳步改善。大约 90% 的时间里，我们的空气质量都很好。.

发布雾霾预警的目的是什么？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

发布雾霾预警的目的是什么？

这些警报的目的是告知呼吸困难的人避免不必要地暴露于烟雾中，告知主要污染源应考虑尽可能减少排放，并呼吁大家通过减少产生烟雾的活动来减轻这个问题。.

该省哪里空气质量最好，雾霾发生率最低？行政人员2014-01-16T14:42:25-05:00

该省哪里空气质量最好，雾霾发生率最低？

一般来说，随着你向北和向东穿越该省，空气质量会逐渐改善，但是，烟雾的形成和输送很大程度上取决于气象条件。.

安大略省的夏季雾霾通常是北美东北部大部分地区普遍存在的区域性天气状况的一部分。臭氧和细颗粒物浓度升高通常是由于影响五大湖下游地区的天气模式造成的。这类天气模式总是与该地区缓慢移动的高压系统有关，并导致来自邻近美国工业化和城市化州的雾霾污染物在西南向东北暖空气流动的过程中被长距离输送。.

寻找居住地时，务必考虑当地的环境因素。例如，最好避开工业密集、交通干道密集的区域。车辆在高速公路或其他道路上的排放影响取决于多种因素，包括：距离高速公路的远近；交通流量；交通拥堵情况（畅通或拥堵）；以及主导风向。.

一般来说，高速公路对空气污染物的影响会随着与道路距离的增加而显著降低。通常情况下，距离路边100米左右，污染物浓度就能降低60%到80%。此外，树木可以过滤空气，因此树木茂盛的区域空气质量通常优于没有树木的区域。.

什么是雾霾？行政人员2014-01-16T14:42:30-05:00

什么是雾霾？

烟雾是一个统称，用来描述多种空气污染物的混合物，其中以近地面臭氧和细颗粒物为主。臭氧是由氮氧化物和挥发性有机化合物在阳光照射下结合形成的，因此臭氧主要出现在夏季，尤其是在安大略省南部。细颗粒物主要由大气中的化学反应和燃料燃烧产生，它一年四季都可能加剧烟雾浓度。.

雾霾从何而来？行政人员2014-01-16T14:42:35-05:00

雾霾从何而来？

造成雾霾的污染物是在车辆、发电厂、工厂锅炉和家庭燃烧化石燃料时释放的。工业生产过程、液体燃料的蒸发以及溶剂和其他挥发性产品（例如油基涂料）的使用也会释放这些污染物。森林火灾会释放导致雾霾的污染物，树木、沼泽和火山活动等自然来源也会排放这些污染物。安大略省的大部分雾霾问题是由本地排放和风从美国污染源输送的污染物共同造成的。超过一半的雾霾来自美国南部边境。.

如何预测雾霾情况？行政人员2014-01-16T14:42:39-05:00

如何预测雾霾情况？

安大略省环境厅的气象学家将污染物浓度的实时信息与天气模式、地形条件和排放源数据相结合，以预测即将出现的雾霾问题。这些数据由遍布全省的40个空气监测站组成的网络采集。过去四年，该厅已投资超过100万至600万加元用于升级安大略省的空气监测网络，使其成为北美最现代化、设备最完善的空气监测网络。.

什么是空气质量指数？行政人员2014-01-16T14:42:49-05:00

什么是空气质量指数？

空气质量指数（AQI）是衡量空气质量的指标，它基于对人类健康和环境有不利影响的污染物。这些污染物包括臭氧、细颗粒物、二氧化氮、一氧化碳、二氧化硫和总还原硫化合物。.

空气质量指数（AQI）低于32时，空气质量为良好或非常好。AQI介于32至49之间表示空气质量中等，50至99之间表示空气质量较差，高于99则表示空气质量非常差。.

空气质量指数（AQI）是如何计算的？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

空气质量指数（AQI）是如何计算的？

空气质量指数（AQI）是一个计算指标，可为安大略省居民提供近乎实时的空气质量信息。该指数针对不同的描述性类别（例如，优、良、中等、差和差）设定了各自的浓度分界点。由于北美各地的空气质量指数计算方法不统一，且计算公式复杂，因此很难直接比较不同地区的空气质量指数。.

空气质量指数 (AQI) 与各污染物浓度之间的关系如下所示。对于每个类别，假设指数值与子指数污染物的浓度之间存在线性关系。每小时结束时，各个 AQI 监测点测得的每种污染物的浓度都会使用统一的标度或指数转换为从零开始的数值。每种污染物的计算值称为子指数。在特定监测点，最高的子指数即为该点当小时的 AQI 读数。.

臭氧（O₃）₃)
空气质量指数类别	[O₃] (ppb)	空气质量指数方程
非常好	0到23	0.6520 × [O₃] + 0
好的	24至50	0.5800 × [O₃] + 2.154
缓和	51至80	0.5900 × [O₃] + 2.1
贫穷的	81至149	0.7200 × [O₃] – 8.37
非常差	>149	0.7200 × [O₃] – 8.37

细颗粒物（PM2.5）_2.5)
空气质量指数类别	[下午_2.53小时平均值（µg/m）³)	空气质量指数方程
非常好	<12	1.364 × [PM_2.5] + 0
好的	12至22	1.500 × [PM_2.5] – 2.000
缓和	23至45	0.7727 × [PM_2.5] + 14.228
贫穷的	46至90	1.113 × [PM_2.5] – 1.298
非常差	>90	1.100 × [PM_2.5] + 0

二氧化硫（SO₂）₂)
空气质量指数类别	[所以₂] (ppb)	空气质量指数方程
非常好	0 到 79	0.1899 × [SO₂] + 0
好的	80至169	0.1685 × [SO₂] + 2.520
缓和	170 至 250	0.2125 × [SO₂] – 4.125
贫穷的	251 至 1999 年	0.0280 × [SO₂] + 42.97
非常差	1999年以后	0.0500 × [SO₂] + 0

二氧化氮（NO₂）₂)
空气质量指数类别	[不₂] (ppb)	空气质量指数方程
非常好	0到50	0.300 × [NO₂] + 0
好的	51至110	0.2543 × [NO₂] + 3.00
缓和	111至200	0.191 × [NO₂] + 10.79
贫穷的	201至524	0.1517 × [NO₂] + 19.5
非常差	>524	0.1903 × [NO₂] + 0

一氧化碳（CO）
空气质量指数类别	[CO] (ppm)	空气质量指数方程
非常好	0 到 12.49	1.2500 × [CO] + 0
好的	12.50 至 22.49	1.6700 × [CO] – 5.67
缓和	22.50 至 30.49	2.4300 × [CO] – 23.86
贫穷的	30.50 至 49.49	2.7200 × [CO] – 34.39
非常差	>49.49	2.0000 × [CO] + 0

总还原硫（TRS）
空气质量指数类别	[TRS] (ppb)	空气质量指数方程
非常好	0 到 5.49	3.0000 × [TRS] + 0
好的	5.50 至 10.49	3.7500 × [TRS] – 6.50
缓和	10.50 至 27.49	1.0625 × [TRS] + 20.31
贫穷的	27.50 至 999.49	0.05046 × [TRS] + 48.59
非常差	>999.49	0.1000 × [TRS] + 0

笔记：

十亿分之一 (ppb)
微克/立方米 (µg/m³)³)
百万分之几 (ppm)

我们是如何改进雾霾预报的？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

我们是如何改进雾霾预报的？

从 2000 年 5 月 1 日起，作为安大略省空气质量新举措的一部分，该部门比以往任何时候都更早、更有效地发布了空气质量差的通知。.

当空气质量和天气状况可能导致雾霾时，该部门会采取措施通知公众，并警告那些最易受空气质量恶化影响的人群。该部门提供两级预警：

A 雾霾监测当预计未来三天内出现高浓度雾霾的概率为 50% 时，就会发布雾霾预警。.
A 雾霾预警 如果预计未来 24 小时内很可能出现高浓度的烟雾，或者如果出现大范围的、较差的空气质量指数读数，并且预计有利于这种浓度持续数小时的天气条件，则可以立即发布。.

当天气变化导致空气质量改善时，该部门会发布终止通知。.

2001 年 5 月，该部门采取了一项政策，即如果出现大范围的空气质量指数 (AQI) 读数较差，并且预计有利于这种水平持续数小时的天气条件，则立即发布雾霾警报。.

截至2002年8月，该部门将细颗粒物（PM2.5）纳入考量范围。_2.5）到其空气质量指数。这一新的子指数为安大略省居民提供更多空气质量信息，以便他们能够做出明智的决定，保护自身健康并帮助改善我们共同拥有的空气质量。.

即使没有发布雾霾监测或雾霾警报，空气质量也可能很差吗？行政人员2014-01-16T14:43:08-05:00

即使没有发布雾霾监测或雾霾警报，空气质量也可能很差吗？

是的。由于雾霾与天气密切相关，因此不可能始终做到百分之百准确。例如，天气系统可能会提前到达安大略省，或者改变方向。.

因此，即使没有发布雾霾预警，空气质量也可能变差。同样，即使发布了雾霾预警，空气质量变差的情况也可能不会出现。.

哪里可以获取每小时污染物浓度数据？行政人员2014-01-16T14:43:12-05:00

哪里可以获取每小时污染物浓度数据？

安大略省环境厅 (MOE) 的空气质量指数网站为用户提供来自 MOE 环境监测站的每小时污染物浓度数据。数据输出包含监测站和污染物信息，并以 .HTML 和/或 .CSV 格式提供，可直接导入 Excel 或任何其他电子表格应用程序。目前，可在线获取 2000 年至 2012 年的数据。访问该工具的网址为：http://www.airqualityontario.com/history/

SHARP PM2.5 监测仪对报告的 PM2.5 浓度有何影响？行政人员2014-01-16T14:44:29-05:00

SHARP PM2.5 监测仪对报告的 PM2.5 浓度有何影响？

夏普新款监测仪能够检测PM的其他成分。_2.5, 尤其是在寒冷天气下。由于监测技术的进步，PM2.5 的监测结果可能会更高。_2.5 冬季期间的浓度有所增加。这反映了测量精度的提高，并不一定意味着安大略省的空气质量正在发生变化。空气本身并没有改变，只是监测方法发生了变化。.

安大略省为什么要升级PM2.5监测网络？行政人员2014-01-16T14:43:22-05:00

安大略省为什么要升级PM2.5监测网络？

安大略省致力于成为空气质量报告领域的领导者，并持续受益于北美最全面的空气监测系统之一。该网络升级由加拿大环境部根据一项旨在标准化PM2.5的国家计划提供资金支持。_2.5 制定加拿大各地的监测方法，确保数据可比性。目标是让所有辖区都采用联邦政府批准的PM（颗粒物监测系统）。_2.5 到 2013 年，显示器数量将达到 10000 台。.

我如何获取空气质量信息？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

我如何获取空气质量信息？

本网站内容： http://www.airqualityontario.com. 本网站提供空气质量指数 (AQI) 读数、环境空气污染数据和空气质量预报，以及发布雾霾警报时可采取的措施信息。您还可以订阅该部门的…… 烟雾预警网络, 并且，每当该部门发布雾霾预警或雾霾警报时，您都会收到一封自动电子邮件。.
电话查询：您可以拨打免费电话 1-800-387-7768 或多伦多地区电话 416-246-0411，通过录音电话获取空气质量指数 (AQI) 读数。如需法语空气质量指数读数，请拨打 1-800-221-8852。.
通过广播和电视：安大略省环境厅多年来一直与安大略省各地的新闻媒体合作，向公众通报雾霾情况。这将继续是传播雾霾信息以及减少雾霾排放措施的重要途径。今年雾霾季，您可以期待当地的广播和电视台在其天气预报中加入雾霾预警和雾霾警报。.

安大略省如何监测PM2.5？行政人员2014-01-16T14:44:36-05:00

安大略省如何监测PM2.5？

2002年，安大略省成为加拿大第一个引入PM监测的省份。_2.5 空气质量指数。该部门报告了实时PM值。_2.5 使用 Thermo Scientific TEOM 1400AB/SES 直至 2012 年 12 月 31 日。持续 PM_2.5 过去十年，监测技术取得了显著发展。目前，该网络能够实时报告PM值。_2.5 安大略省采用Thermo Scientific SHARP 5030测定空气质量浓度。SHARP 5030是美国环境保护署于2009年批准的III级联邦等效方法。安大略省自2009年起对SHARP监测仪进行评估，并于2012年与加拿大环境部协商后采纳了该方法。2013年，SHARP监测仪部署在安大略省的空气质量指数（AQI）监测网络中。.

如果接到雾霾警报，我应该怎么办？行政人员2014-01-16T14:44:42-05:00

如果接到雾霾警报，我应该怎么办？

以下是一些您可以采取的措施，以帮助保护环境和自身健康：

在家里：

全年节约用电，方法是调节暖气或空调温度，并关闭不使用的灯。.
避免让你的汽车或其他任何发动机长时间怠速运转。.
减少汽油动力设备的使用。.
空气质量差时，请避免割草。.
尽量避免使用油漆、溶剂或清洁剂等油性产品。它们含有挥发性有机化合物（VOCs），是造成雾霾的罪魁祸首之一。.
雾霾严重时，尤其是在傍晚，应避免或减少剧烈的户外体力活动。不要在户外进行剧烈运动。.
如果可以，请待在凉爽的空调室内。.
按照汽车制造商的保养计划进行发动机调校和汽车保养检查。.
限制壁炉或柴炉的燃烧量。燃烧木柴时，只使用干燥、风干的木柴。.

在上班：

如果可以，尽量乘坐公共交通工具或步行上班。.
如果你开车，不要独自出行；鼓励和协助拼车。.
避开交通拥堵。.
考虑召开电话会议，而不是亲自前往会议地点。.

和往常一样，请咨询医生以获取有关如何应对空气质量差的具体医疗建议。.

哪里可以获取有关雾霾与健康关系的信息？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

哪里可以获取有关雾霾与健康关系的信息？

有关雾霾及其对健康的影响，请参阅我们的《雾霾与您的健康》情况说明书，网址为： http://www.airqualityontario.com/press/publications.php.

什么是雾霾预警响应计划？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

什么是雾霾预警响应计划？

当雾霾浓度达到临界水平时，应立即采取措施保护社会中最脆弱的群体，并减少可能恶化当地空气质量的排放。雾霾预警响应计划是组织、政府机构、公司或市政当局在预测空气质量恶劣时应采取的书面行动方案。此类计划应包含告知居民或员工潜在健康威胁的机制，以及可采取的具体措施来降低风险。.

有关制定雾霾预警应对计划的更多信息以及您可以采取哪些措施来应对雾霾的其他建议，请参阅该部门的出版物—— 雾霾预警应对：市政行动指南.

往年发布了多少次雾霾预警？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

往年发布了多少次雾霾预警？

该部门监测空气污染水平，并在预计会出现大范围高浓度和持续性雾霾时发布雾霾预警。.

以下是安大略省自 2003 年以来发布的雾霾预警汇总：

自2003年以来，安大略省交通部发布的烟雾预警
年	咨询数量	总天数
2003	7	19
2004	8	20
2005	15	53
2006	6	17
2007	13	39
2008	8	17
2009	3	5
2010	3	12
2011	5	9
2012	12	30
2013	1	2
2014*	0	0

*截至2014年1月16日。.

安大略省正在采取哪些措施来改善和保护空气质量？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

安大略省正在采取哪些措施来改善和保护空气质量？

安大略省致力于为减少排放和改善空气质量贡献力量。“安大略省空气质量计划”是保护环境和维护公众健康的综合战略的一部分。该战略的其他组成部分包括：

清洁驾驶 一项旨在减少氮氧化物（NOx）的计划_X）以及挥发性有机化合物（VOCs），通过机动车排放测试和烟雾巡逻执法；;
安大略省法规 194/05 – 工业排放：氮氧化物 (NOx)_X）和二氧化硫（SO₂）₂）——该法规规定了从 2006 年开始的行业部门排放上限，并规定了未来几年（2007 年、2010 年和 2015 年）如何减少这些上限；;
安大略省法规 419/05：空气污染——地方空气质量——制定有毒物质的空气质量标准，以保护当地社区；;
安大略省第397/01号法规：排放交易——限制氮氧化物（NOx）排放_X）和二氧化硫（SO₂）₂）电力行业的排放；;
安大略省第127/01号法规：《空气污染物排放——监测和报告》——旨在引起公众对环境实践的关注，从而迫使高排放者改善其行为。 正在播出： 安大略省的在线公众报告登记系统；;
到 2009 年初，开发更清洁的能源以取代燃煤发电；强制要求发展可再生能源；鼓励提高能源效率和节约能源；包括利用热电联产。;
第一阶段油气回收（安大略省法规 455/94）要求汽油设施经营者安装、维护和操作汽油油气回收系统；汽油挥发性（安大略省法规 271/91，经安大略省法规 45/97 修订）限制夏季汽油蒸汽压力；;
干洗店环境培训（安大略省法规 323/94）；;
加拿大环境部长理事会（CCME）关于新型和改进型燃气轮机的A-5指南；以及，,
CCME 针对新型商用/工业锅炉和加热器的 A-9 指南。.

颗粒物行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

颗粒物

颗粒物（PM）是指空气中存在的固态或液态颗粒。根据其形成过程中涉及的化合物和过程，PM可分为一次颗粒物和二次颗粒物。一次颗粒物是在排放源以颗粒形式排放的，例如发电厂的烟囱或近期耕作后易受风蚀的田地。二次颗粒物的形成则是由一系列涉及不同前体气体的化学和物理反应引起的，例如…… 硫氧化物以及氮氧化物，以及氨反应生成硫酸盐、硝酸盐和铵盐颗粒物。.

PM颗粒的大小很大程度上决定了其对环境和健康造成的损害程度。因此，加拿大环境部将PM颗粒分为不同粒径：

总颗粒物（TPM）–空气动力学当量粒径上限约为100微米（µm）的空气悬浮颗粒物

粒径小于10微米的颗粒物（PM10）₁₀) – 质量中值直径小于 10 微米的空气颗粒物

粒径小于2.5微米的颗粒物（PM2.5）_2.5) – 质量中值直径小于 2.5 微米的空气颗粒物

大量研究表明，颗粒物（PM）会加剧哮喘、支气管炎和肺气肿等心脏和呼吸系统疾病，并与各种类型的心脏病有关。颗粒物还会对人体健康产生不利影响。植被并导致建筑物受损，进而造成能见度下降和区域性雾霾。.

住宅室内空气中细颗粒物（PM2.5）的指导原则行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

住宅室内空气中细颗粒物（PM2.5）的指导原则

背景

细颗粒物（PM2.5）_2.5PM2.5 是空气中所有空气动力学直径小于或等于 2.5 μm 的细小颗粒的总称。它是一种复杂的混合物，其成分在大小、形状、密度、表面积和化学组成方面各不相同（加拿大卫生部和加拿大环境部，1999；美国环保署，2009）。1987 年，加拿大卫生部发布了《住宅室内空气质量暴露指南》，其中规定了 PM2.5 长期和短期暴露的最大可接受范围。_2.5 在家中。这些指南正在修订，以反映关于PM对健康影响和居民暴露的最新科学研究成果。_2.5.

接触

室内PM_2.5 由室内产生的颗粒物组成_2.5来自吸烟、烹饪、清洁等来源，以及PM_2.5 这是从外部渗入的。加拿大卫生部在加拿大不同城市进行的研究表明，室内平均PM值较高。_2.5浓度低于 15 µg/m³³ 在没有吸烟者的家庭中，且浓度低于 35 微克/立方米。³ 在有吸烟者的家庭中（加拿大卫生部，2010）。一般来说，室内PM2.5浓度较高。_2.5 除了有吸烟者的家庭外，室内空气中的污染物浓度低于直接在房屋外测量的室外污染物浓度。.

健康影响

户外 PM_2.5, 大量研究表明，区域监测站测得的PM2.5浓度与心血管和呼吸系统疾病的死亡率和发病率密切相关（加拿大卫生部和加拿大环境部，1999；世界卫生组织，2005；美国环保署，2009）。目前尚无公认的室外PM2.5健康影响阈值。_2.5无论暴露发生在室内还是室外，都有证据表明，在目前的暴露水平下都会产生不良健康影响。.

研究室内PM与PM之间关系的研究数量要少得多。_2.5 以及健康。有一些证据表明室内PM与健康之间存在关联。_2.5 哮喘儿童的肺功能下降和呼出气一氧化氮（一种气道炎症标志物）水平升高（Koenig et al. 2003; Delfino et al. 2004; Koenig et al. 2005; Trenga et al. 2006）。然而，呼出气一氧化氮的变化与室外PM2.5浓度的相关性更强。_2.5 比室内PM_2.5 （Koenig等人，2003；Koenig等人，2005；Allen等人，2008）。室内PM之间的关联_2.5 老年人中也观察到了心血管疾病标志物的细微变化（Delfino 等人 2008；Liu 等人 2009；Allen 等人 2011）。.

指导

1987 年暴露指南中制定的可接受的长期和短期暴露范围应予撤销，并以这份新的指南取而代之，该指南侧重于室内污染源控制，以最大限度地减少 PM 的长期暴露。_2.5 室内。.

室内PM浓度_2.5 应尽可能降低PM浓度，因为PM对健康的影响没有明显的阈值。_2.5. 完全消除PM是不可能的。_2.5室内PM2.5的来源包括烹饪、清洁等日常活动产生的污染物，以及居民几乎无法控制的室外污染物渗入。然而，PM2.5的任何减少都可能对降低PM2.5浓度产生影响。_2.5 预计这将带来健康益处，尤其对敏感人群，例如患有基础疾病的人、老年人或儿童。.

重点应放在减少房主和居民能够一定程度控制的室内污染源上。减少接触室内主要PM污染源的主要推荐策略包括：_2.5 是：

戒烟
烹饪时使用炉灶风扇

其他减少室内PM的措施_2.5 措施包括确保通风良好，尤其是在进行可能产生颗粒物的活动时。_2.5. 然而，如果室外PM浓度过高，通风的潜在益处可能会降低或消失。_2.5 浓度很高。也有证据表明，一些管道式空气过滤器或带有过滤器的便携式空气净化器可能有助于降低室内颗粒物浓度。_2.5 水平。然而，不同产品的过滤效率差异很大，过滤器作为一种减少室内PM的方法，其有效性也存在很大差异。_2.5 具体情况取决于所用产品及其维护方式。如何正确选择和维护空气过滤器和便携式空气净化器不在本文讨论范围之内。.

上述建议与加拿大卫生部指导房主应重点关注识别家中潜在污染源，然后通过源头控制、改善通风和其他补救措施（例如空气过滤）来改善空气质量的指导方针相一致。在大多数情况下，识别潜在污染源比进行室内空气质量检测并将测量值与定量指导值进行比较更具参考价值且成本效益更高。.

定量住宅室内空气质量指南可供公共卫生和建筑专业人员用于解读室内空气质量研究结果和制定性能标准。关于室内PM2.5。_2.5, 加拿大卫生部并未提出具体的最大暴露限值，但建议室内PM2.5浓度应控制在一定范围内。_2.5, 至少要低于PM值_2.5 室外。室内PM浓度高于室外PM浓度表明室内存在较强的PM来源。_2.5 这个问题需要解决。室内与室外PM2.5浓度的比率。_2.5 因此，这些水平可以用于突出显示需要采取策略来减少室内产生的PM的情况。_2.5 是必要的，而且会非常有效。推荐的PM_2.5 所有家庭都可以采取减排策略。然而，对于那些室内外PM浓度比值较高的家庭来说，这些策略尤为重要。_2.5 浓度高于1的PM2.5，应采取有针对性的措施来识别和消除室内PM2.5污染源。_2.5 是优先事项。.

空气净化器和空气清洁器？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

空气净化器和空气清洁器？

空气净化器和空气清洁器？

在寻找净化室内空气的方法时，很容易被各种术语搞糊涂。例如，许多人认为空气净化器和空气清洁器是不同的。但实际上，它们是同一种东西。“空气净化器”和“空气清洁器”这两个词完全可以互换使用。了解空气净化器的定义和工作原理，就能更容易地找到适合自己的产品。.

室内空气污染物和空气净化器

在选购室内空气净化器之前，最好先了解一下家中常见的几种空气污染物。这些知识能帮助您更轻松地找到有效净化空气的空气净化器。有了对室内空气污染物的基本了解，您也能更容易地理解目前市面上最流行的空气净化器的产品描述。.

挥发性有机化合物

挥发性有机化合物（VOCs）是指许多日常家居用品释放的气体或蒸汽。例如，新地毯、油漆、粘合剂、清漆、胶水和消毒剂等都可能释放VOCs。要确定某种家居产品是否含有VOCs，可以查看其成分表，例如甲醛、甲苯、氯化物、乙烯和苯。有些空气净化器可以过滤空气中的VOCs，但有些则不具备此功能。如果您非常在意这一点，请选择带有VOCs过滤功能的空气净化器。.

气味和气体

一些空气净化器可以有效去除室内空气中的异味和气体。它们主要依靠活性炭过滤器来实现这一功能，而活性炭过滤器几乎是目前市面上所有空气净化器和空气清洁器的标准配置。这些过滤器利用一种叫做吸附的过程，通过化学反应使这些气体和异味吸附在活性炭上。常见的异味和气体包括气溶胶、烟草烟雾、烹饪气味、室内杀虫剂、猫砂和毒素。.

空气中的颗粒物

大多数人购买空气净化器是为了清除家中空气中的颗粒物。这些颗粒物包括尘螨、宠物皮屑、花粉、霉菌、植物孢子和真菌等。它们会加剧哮喘和过敏等疾病，因此清除室内空气中的这些颗粒物至关重要。高效空气微粒过滤器（HEPA过滤器）被认为是去除这些颗粒物最有效的方法，这些颗粒物大小不一，但都属于微观范畴。.

空气中颗粒物的平均大小以微米为单位。1微米等于1/25,000英寸。要被归类为高效空气微粒过滤器（HEPA过滤器），该过滤器必须能够过滤掉99.97%的细小至0.3微米的空气颗粒物。.

粒子类型	尺寸
抽烟	0.003微米至0.04微米
细菌	0.3微米至3微米
真菌	0.5微米至5微米
宠物皮屑	0.3微米至100微米
模具	2微米至20微米
花粉	10微米至100微米
尘螨	10微米至40微米
植物孢子	10微米至70微米

微生物

有些空气净化器旨在去除空气中的微生物。在某些情况下，空气净化器还会利用紫外线和其他技术杀死微生物。细菌、病毒、病原体和抗原都属于微生物。霉菌也属于这一类。.

空气过滤器的类型

无论称之为空气净化器还是空气清洁器，这类机器最重要的部件都是空气过滤器。事实上，大多数空气净化器至少包含两个空气过滤器，有些甚至使用三到四个不同的过滤器。找到合适的空气净化器最简单的方法之一就是寻找配备特定类型过滤器的型号。为此，您需要了解目前最流行的几种空气过滤器的主要特性。.

活性炭过滤器

这种类型的过滤器通常不单独使用，而是经常与高效空气微粒过滤器（HEPA过滤器）和其他空气过滤器配合使用。活性炭利用一种称为吸附的化学反应来去除空气中的异味、气体和蒸汽。这些过滤器中的活性炭经过氧气处理，使其表面形成数百万个微小孔隙。由于表面积增大，活性炭过滤器可以长时间有效地去除空气中的异味、气体和蒸汽。一些活性炭过滤器还可以去除空气中的挥发性有机化合物（VOCs）。它们含有额外的化学物质，称为化学吸附剂，可以将VOCs截留在过滤器中或使其无害化。.

离子和臭氧发生器

虽然严格来说它们并非过滤器，但离子发生器和臭氧发生器的设计目的相同：去除空气中的杂质。然而，它们并非过滤杂质，而是使杂质附着在房间周围的物体表面。这些发生器通常还会释放臭氧作为副产品。这可能会造成问题，因为臭氧被认为是一种肺部刺激物。.

静电除尘器

静电除尘器采用与臭氧发生器和离子发生器相同的原理。主要区别在于，静电除尘器还能过滤空气中的杂质。然而，它们也会产生臭氧作为副产品，因此使用这种技术的空气净化器可能不适合呼吸系统疾病患者。杂质被收集在可清洗的滤板上，因此无需购买替换滤芯。.

带电介质过滤器

这些过滤器的描述几乎与静电除尘器完全相同。主要区别在于，这些过滤器使用的是滤网，而不是滤板。因此，需要定期更换滤网。这些过滤器的一大优点是能够捕获极其微小的颗粒。然而，与静电除尘器、离子发生器和臭氧发生器一样，它们也会产生臭氧。.

预过滤器

如果较大的颗粒物接触到敏感的滤网，空气净化器和空气清洁器的工作效率就会降低。因此，绝大多数这类机器都配备了预过滤器。预过滤器的作用是从空气中过滤掉较大的颗粒物，防止它们进入高效空气微粒过滤器（HEPA过滤器）或其他类型的过滤器。预过滤器通常由尼龙编织物或泡沫材料制成，而且大多数情况下可以反复清洗。.

抗菌杀菌过滤器

要想彻底清除空气中大部分的细菌和病毒，唯一的办法就是购买一台带有抗菌或杀菌过滤器的空气净化器。有时，这种技术会利用紫外线。有时，则会使用经过特殊处理的HEPA过滤器来杀灭细菌、病毒和其他微生物。.

高效空气过滤器

为了有效去除空气中至少 99.97% 的颗粒物，购买一台配备 HEPA 过滤器的空气净化器至关重要。高效空气微粒过滤器（HEPA 过滤器）最初是为去除空气中的放射性尘埃颗粒而设计的。然而，并非所有 HEPA 过滤器的性能都相同。HEPA 过滤器的过滤面积越大，其净化效果就越好。在购买采用 HEPA 技术的空气净化器之前，请务必查看过滤器的过滤面积。.

空气净化器的类型

目前市面上主要有三种空气净化器：全屋空气净化器、全屋空气过滤器和便携式空气净化器。.

全屋空气净化器

全屋空气净化器直接安装在房屋的供暖和制冷系统上。然而，这并非普通房主能够胜任的工作，必须由专业人员安装。此外，房屋必须配备强制通风管道才能使此类系统正常工作。还需注意的是，全屋空气净化器通常需要直接连接到房屋的电力系统中。.

全屋空气过滤器

另一种一次性净化家中大部分空气的方法是使用全屋空气过滤器，这种过滤器旨在取代标准的炉式过滤器。这种方法虽然有一定的效果，但与其他类型的空气净化器相比，它去除的杂质远不及后者。.

便携式空气净化器

虽然一台便携式空气净化器只能净化一个房间的空气，但它的净化效果非常出色。市面上有很多价格实惠的房间空气净化器，所以很多人会在每个房间都放一台。.

不同空气净化器的优缺点

空气净化器或空气清洁器的类型	优点	缺点
全屋空气净化器	过滤整个房屋的空气。多种选择	昂贵的必须由专业人员安装可能需要接入房屋的电力系统。可能不如便携式型号高效
全屋空气过滤器	方便的便于使用价格低廉	净化室内空气的效果不太好。过滤器必须与炉子兼容。
便携式空气净化器	轻的袖珍的可能包含脚轮或把手有多种选择。适合各种预算的选择	仅净化单个房间的空气不同型号之间的质量差异很大。

空气净化器功能

如果不了解当今空气净化器和空气清洁器的主要特点，就很难找到合适的选择。.

能源效率

空气净化器的能效可以通过其耗电量（瓦特数）来衡量。如果无法获得瓦特数信息，只需将电压（伏特）乘以电流（安培数）即可。市面上的空气净化器功率范围很广，从50瓦左右的入门级产品到最高档位下耗电200瓦甚至更高的型号都有。.

ACH

空气净化器的每小时换气次数（ACH）是一项重要的参数。它反映了空气净化器每小时在房间内进行空气交换的次数。ACH 值通常会标注在房间大小旁边。建议选择 ACH 值在 4 或以上的空气净化器，因为它们每小时至少可以进行四次空气交换。.

CADR

在购买空气净化器之前，也要考虑其洁净空气输出率（CADR）。该指标由美国家用电器制造商协会（AHAM）评定。CADR值越高，空气净化器的净化效果就越好。.

滤芯更换

在购买空气净化器之前，务必先了解其滤芯的更换方式，并查询更换每种滤芯的大致成本。如果不事先做好功课，每年可能要额外花费数百美元购买空气净化器的滤芯，这会让原本看似划算的交易付之东流。.

结论

空气净化器和空气清洁器本质上是一样的，但这个类别下有很多不同的选择。为了找到合适的空气净化器或空气清洁器，你需要了解它们的工作原理以及所使用的空气过滤器的类型。.

空气污染事实行政人员2014-01-16T14:13:57-05:00

空气污染事实

公共卫生专家估计，空气污染每年导致加拿大 16,000 人过早死亡；照此速度，每天有 40 名加拿大人死于与空气污染相关的疾病。.

室内空气质量 (IAQ)：在室内工作的人们经常会出现头痛、呼吸急促、咳嗽或恶心等症状。然而，很难证明这些症状与某种特定的室内空气污染物有关。事实上，建筑物内的居住者同时暴露于多种室内空气污染物中。.
室内空气质量问题的原因：室内环境——温度、湿度、光照不足、噪音过大；室内空气污染物——化学物质、灰尘、霉菌或真菌、细菌、气体、蒸汽、异味；室外空气引入不足
我们的肺部健康——以及整体健康——都依赖于清洁的空气。室内外空气污染会导致健康问题，尤其对肺部疾病患者而言更是如此。.
室外空气质量是一个重要的健康问题。空气污染仍然严重威胁着我们呼吸的空气质量。.

空气污染会刺激、炎症甚至破坏肺组织，削弱肺部对污染物的防御能力。即使是低浓度的空气污染也会引发健康问题。.

室外空气污染可能引起的症状行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

室外空气污染可能引起的症状

眼睛、鼻子和喉咙感到刺激
喘息、咳嗽和呼吸困难
胸部紧绷感
原有肺部疾病恶化（哮喘, 慢性阻塞性肺病, 等等）和心脏问题

有些人能立即感受到空气污染的症状。例如，哮喘患者在雾霾天外出10分钟后可能就会感到呼吸困难。而对于其他人来说，可能需要更长时间才能感受到室外空气污染对健康的影响。即使你暂时感觉不到任何问题，长期暴露于空气污染中仍然可能损害你的健康。.

哪些人最容易因室外空气污染而生病？行政人员2014-01-16T14:17:15-05:00

哪些人最容易因室外空气污染而生病？

孩子们
老年人
患有肺部疾病的人，包括哮喘和慢性阻塞性肺病患者
心脏病患者
免疫系统受损的人

即使是健康的人，在空气污染严重的日子里也会出现呼吸问题。.

空气污染是如何进入人体的？行政人员2014-01-16T14:16:28-05:00

空气污染是如何进入人体的？

人体拥有天然的清洁和修复系统，可以帮助防止较大的颗粒物损伤肺部。肺部呼吸道内壁覆盖着一层薄薄的黏液，并布满了数千根纤毛。如果吸入细菌或颗粒物，黏液会吸附这些细小的污垢，纤毛则像波浪一样协同运动，将充满污垢的黏液排出肺部。然后，通过咳嗽、吐出或吞咽，污垢就被排出体外了。.

某些空气污染的问题在于，其中的颗粒物太小，无法被人体的黏液和纤毛捕获和清除。这些微小的污染颗粒会一路飘到肺部的末端（肺泡），并可能造成永久性肺损伤。.

室内空气污染物：

二氧化碳（CO₂）₂）、烟草烟雾、香水、体味——来自建筑物居住者。.
粉尘、玻璃纤维、石棉、气体（包括甲醛）——均来自建筑材料。.
有毒蒸汽、挥发性有机化合物 (VOC)——来自工作场所的清洁剂、溶剂、杀虫剂、消毒剂、胶水。.
气体、蒸汽、气味——家具、地毯和油漆释放的有害气体。.
尘螨——来自地毯、织物、泡沫椅垫。.
微生物污染物、真菌、霉菌、细菌——来自潮湿区域、死水和冷凝水盘。.
臭氧——来自复印机、电动机、静电空气净化器。.

结果：

眼睛、鼻子、喉咙和皮肤干燥、发痒,
头痛，,
疲劳，,
气促，,
过敏和超敏反应,
鼻窦充血,
咳嗽和打喷嚏,
头晕和/或
恶心。.

预防措施行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

预防措施

保持家中清洁无尘。.
不要让任何人在你家吸烟。.
尽量减少潜在污染物的使用，寻找替代品或完全消除它们。.
清理（或报告）任何溢出物或泄漏物。.
如果在会产生污染物的区域工作，请确保污染物来源得到控制（例如在通风橱下工作、清理溢出物、保持门窗关闭）。.
进屋时请脱鞋。房屋外的土壤可能含有许多你不想带进屋里的物质。

室内空气质量是您家供暖和制冷系统的重要组成部分。毕竟，您可能听说过空气质量对健康的影响，尤其对过敏患者而言。谁又没有体验过呼吸污浊不堪的空气带来的不适呢？但更好的室内空气质量还有另一个好处：它能让您的家更舒适宜人。冬天您会感觉更温暖，夏天您会感觉更凉爽。这意味着您无需频繁地开启暖气或空调。事实上，您或许能够节省高达 18% 的能源费用，年复一年。空气过滤系统通过最大限度地减少空气中的颗粒物，有效净化您呼吸的空气。您的肺部当然会感谢更洁净的空气，您的供暖和制冷系统也会受益匪浅。空气过滤系统能够确保暖气和中央空调系统以最佳效率运行，从而减少日后的维修费用。.

个人人们可以在当地采取行动，减少在家中、路上、工作场所和娱乐场所的能源消耗。他们还可以利用许多实用技巧（包含有趣的事实）和其他资源，帮助他们减少自身造成的空气污染。.

社区行动也至关重要。组织宣传活动以促进社区更广泛地参与，是取得进展的有效途径。社区及其市政府可以参与规划更可持续的土地利用和交通方式，并制定社区社会营销计划，以推动必要的变革。.

行业企业也可以尽自己的一份力，例如采取污染预防措施、应用污染控制技术、提高能源效率、转向可再生能源以及使用更清洁的燃料。许多公司正在努力提升自身的绿色形象，以吸引越来越多具有环保意识的消费者。.

政府行政人员2014-01-16T14:20:05-05:00

政府

清洁、安全的空气对于保护人民和社区的健康至关重要。作为其改善安大略省空气质量承诺的一部分，麦坚迪政府发布了两项新规，要求工业企业减少有害空气污染物的排放。这两项法规均兑现了政府在……中所作的承诺。 清洁空气五点行动计划, 于 2004 年 6 月 21 日宣布。.

第 194/05 号法规工业排放——氮氧化物和二氧化硫 针对五点行动计划的第一点和第二点：

应用难处理的氮氧化物（NO）_x）和二氧化硫（SO₂）₂限制两种最重要的致霾污染物——污染物——的使用范围比以往任何时候都更广，涉及的工业部门也更多。.
拒绝_x 所以₂ 未来几年限制还会更加严格。.

第 419/05 号条例空气污染 – 地方空气质量提高省级有害空气污染物标准可以解决该计划的第三至第五点：

针对许多有害污染物（包括可能对人类健康构成威胁的致癌物和毒素），制定了新的空气质量标准，其中一些标准是首次制定。.
通过更新的技术，更好地了解工业排放情况。.
引入一种更快、基于风险的方法来实施新的空气质量标准。.

空气污染的成本行政人员2014-01-16T14:20:43-05:00

空气污染的成本

据《科学》杂志报道，空气污染会影响“死亡率、住院率和就诊次数、哮喘和支气管炎并发症、误工天数、活动受限天数以及各种肺部损伤指标”。世界卫生组织对法国、瑞士和奥地利的一项研究发现，交通污染造成的医疗成本约占其国内生产总值的1.7%，远高于治疗交通事故伤亡的费用。.

来源： CNN.com “交通污染‘每年导致数千人死亡’“ 2000年9月1日

加拿大安大略省估计，空气污染每年给该省 1200 万居民造成至少 14 万亿美元的损失，其中包括住院治疗、急诊就诊和工人缺勤。.

来源：安大略省医学协会，《安大略省空气污染造成的疾病成本》，2000年6月

世界银行报告称，在中国——世界上空气污染最严重的国家之一——城市居民因空气污染导致的死亡和疾病造成的损失估计占国内生产总值的 5%。.

减少空气污染的方法行政人员2014-01-16T14:12:11-05:00

减少空气污染的方法

我们每天都会做出一些有助于减少空气污染的选择。以下是一些您可以采取的帮助净化空气的建议。.

在家里

节约能源——离开房间时请关闭电器和灯。.
回收纸张、塑料、玻璃瓶、纸板和铝罐。（这有助于节约能源并减少生产排放。）
保持燃木炉和壁炉的良好状态。您还应该考虑将老旧的燃木炉更换为经美国环保署（EPA）认证的型号。.
在房屋周围种植落叶树，夏季可以提供遮荫，冬季则可以透光。.
购买由低污染甚至零污染设施生产的绿色电力。.
将户外照明灯连接到定时器或使用太阳能照明。.
用温水或冷水洗衣服，不要用热水。.
将热水器恒温器调至120华氏度。.
使用低VOC或水性涂料、着色剂、涂料和脱漆剂。.
检测家中氡气含量——氡气是一种无色无味的危险放射性气体。如果检测结果显示氡气含量超标，这个问题可以经济有效地解决。.
尽量不要在家中吸烟，尤其是有小孩的家庭。如果您或您的访客必须吸烟，请在室外吸烟。.

精明消费

购买 ENERGY STAR 产品，包括节能照明和电器。这些都是环保产品。了解更多信息，,
选择高效、低污染的车型。.
选择包装较少且可重复使用的产品。.
购物时请使用帆布袋，而不是纸袋和塑料袋。.
为经常使用的设备购买可充电电池。.

明智驾驶

规划行程，节约汽油，减少空气污染。.

保持轮胎气压充足且方向正确。.
夏季，请在凉爽的傍晚时分加油，以减少汽油蒸发。避免汽油溢出，也不要加满油箱。加油后务必拧紧油箱盖。.
例如，避免在快餐店或银行的免下车通道排长队。把车停好，进去办理业务。.
尽可能乘坐公共交通工具、步行或骑自行车。.
定期进行发动机调校和汽车保养检查（特别是火花塞）。.
使用节能型（EC）机油。.
请向您的雇主咨询灵活的工作时间安排或远程办公的可能性。.
请向当地空气质量管理部门举报冒烟车辆。.
拼车或合乘上班。.

为了您的健康

查看每日空气质量预报，了解您所在地区的空气清洁程度或污染程度，以及相关的健康问题。.
为了有效控制哮喘，请清除家中所有室内哮喘诱发因素，并避免接触室外诱发因素。访问 www.epa.gov/asthma 了解更多关于哮喘诱因以及如何避免它们的信息。.
尽量减少日晒。涂抹防晒霜并佩戴防紫外线太阳镜。要了解您所在地区当前的紫外线预报，请访问[此处插入网址]。 www.epa.gov/sunwise/uvindex.html.

水是最好的东西。.行政人员2014-01-12T15:41:06-05:00

水是最好的东西。.

品达（约公元前522-438年），《奥林匹亚颂歌》

人体含水量为70%，大脑含水量为85%，血液含水量为90%……而我们最重要的器官之一——肝脏，含水量高达96%！由此可见，我们饮用水的质量会对我们的整体健康产生非常显著的影响。.

补水小贴士

每天至少喝八杯（每杯 8 盎司）水。. 运动量越大，需要补充的水分就越多，以补充流失的体液。.
不要等到口渴才喝水。. 当你感到口渴时，你可能已经失去了两杯或更多杯的体液。.
全天都要喝大量的水。. 方便快捷至关重要，所以无论你是通勤上班、外出办事还是去海滩玩，都请随身携带一瓶水。上班时，可以在办公桌上放一瓶水，或者去饮水机喝水，而不是喝咖啡。.
不要用含酒精或咖啡因的饮料代替水。. 咖啡因和酒精都具有利尿作用，会导致排尿增多，从而流失水分。.
开始运动后，在整个运动过程中都要不断喝水。. 随身携带一瓶水，并经常停下来喝水。.
不要低估汗液流失的水分量。. 锻炼后，每减掉一磅体重，就需要喝两杯水。.
每天以水开始和结束。. 睡眠时身体会流失水分，所以睡前喝一杯水，醒来后再喝一杯。.
普通感冒和流感常常会导致脱水。. 在床边放一大瓶水，这样你就可以随时喝水，而不用起床。.
天气炎热时，保持水分的最佳饮品是凉水，而不是碳酸饮料或运动饮料。. 凉水比温水更容易被人体吸收，有助于降低过热的身体温度。如果你要出门在外或进行户外活动，务必随身携带一瓶水。.
请确保您的孩子饮用足够的水。 . 儿童需要补充水分来平衡其他饮料的摄入量，尤其是在进行活动时。在孩子的午餐盒里装瓶装水，而不是果汁或普通汽水，也有助于预防儿童肥胖。.

软化水中应该使用多少肥皂或洗涤剂？行政人员2014-01-12T15:38:54-05:00

软化水中应该使用多少肥皂或洗涤剂？

初次使用软化水进行家务清洁时，最好尽量少用肥皂。如有必要，房主可以逐渐增加肥皂用量，直至达到理想效果。.

过度使用肥皂的习惯很难改掉。因此，任何与客户联系的人都应该强调咖啡的用量是合适的，而不是像安装软水器之前那样需要一杯甚至更多。.

软化水可以用于蒸汽熨斗吗？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

软化水可以用于蒸汽熨斗吗？

硬水或软水都不应该用于蒸汽熨斗。长期使用时，只能使用去离子水或蒸馏水。.

请记住，软化水并不会去除水中的矿物质。.

家用洗碗机应遵循哪些一般操作程序？行政人员2014-01-12T15:38:02-05:00

家用洗碗机应遵循哪些一般操作程序？

无论如何，都应遵循洗碗机制造商的说明。不过，以下一般性注意事项也可作为补充。.

避免使用泡沫丰富的肥皂或合成洗涤剂，因为产生的泡沫会“抑制”大多数洗碗机用于擦洗的喷淋作用。市面上有许多专为洗碗机配制的洗涤剂，例如Calgonite和Electro-Sol等品牌。这些产品通常不含皂基，而是依靠餐具上的油脂来产生清洁溶液。.

即使使用软水，餐具上有时仍会出现水渍。在某些情况下，原因可能是洗涤剂用量过多或使用了不合适的材料，如上所述。在其他情况下，则可能是洗碗机装载过重，导致清洁不彻底。.

另一个常见的造成水渍的原因是烘干过快。理想情况下，餐具应该先在潮湿的环境中完全沥干，这样含有矿物质的水就能顺着流走，而不是蒸发掉。有时，水温过高，导致水蒸发而不是沥干。还有一些情况下，洗碗机盖在洗涤周期结束时打开，让冷空气接触餐具。这也会导致水分快速蒸发。.

根据洗碗机的构造，或许可以调整其中一个或两个因素，从而显著改善洗涤效果。.

如何去除织物上的铁渍？行政人员2014-01-12T15:37:47-05:00

如何去除织物上的铁渍？

只要采取一定的预防措施，大多数可水洗织物上的铁渍都可以用草酸去除。草酸在大多数药店都能买到。.

草酸溶液可通过将晶体溶于水来配制。草酸的溶解度仅为约10%，因此溶液浓度不能过高。配制溶液时应使用搪瓷或塑料容器，切勿使用裸露的金属桶。.

应先在衣边内侧或其他不显眼处少量测试溶液，因为酸性物质可能会漂白某些染料。如果明显没有漂白现象，则可以将整件衣物反复浸入溶液中。浸泡应持续进行，直至铁渍消失。将衣物浸泡在酸性溶液中。不是受到推崇的。.

污渍去除后，应使用清水彻底冲洗衣物数次。为确保残留的酸性物质被中和，应立即用正常用量的肥皂按常规方法洗涤衣物。肥皂中的碱性物质会去除最后残留的酸性物质。.

酸性溶液可以倒入下水道，但之后应该用清水彻底冲洗。.

如何测定软化水中钠的含量（以毫克为单位）？行政人员2014-12-09T17:12:38-05:00

如何测定软化水中钠的含量（以毫克为单位）？

1. 首先，确定天然水中的钠含量。将水中以碳酸钙计的钠含量（以每加仑多少格令为单位）乘以 7.866。这将得出水中的钠含量（以每升多少毫克为单位）。.

2. 接下来，确定离子交换软化后水中额外的钠含量。此处，将以碳酸钙表示的水的总硬度（以每加仑多少格令为单位）乘以 7.866。.

3. 将步骤 1 和步骤 2 的结果简单相加，即可得出软化水中钠的含量，单位为毫克/升。通常认为，正常饮水量为 1 升（略多于 1 夸脱）。.

事实上，软化水中的钠含量与食物中的钠含量相比微乎其微。.

软化水中的钠对限制盐摄入的人有害吗？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

软化水中的钠对限制盐摄入的人有害吗？

很大程度上取决于饮食计划本身的严格程度。.

如果患者需要严格控制饮食，则不应饮用硬水或软化水。在这种情况下，他应该饮用去离子水、蒸馏水或已知不含钠的水，也应使用这种水来烹饪食物。这类患者通常需要住院治疗。.

医生在为患者制定无盐饮食方案时，不应忽视即使是硬水也可能含有相当数量的钠这一事实。要确定钠的含量，必须对水进行全面分析。.

如何计算化粪池中的盐浓度？行政人员2014-01-12T15:36:25-05:00

如何计算化粪池中的盐浓度？

如果已知水箱的液体容量，则将该数值乘以 8.33 即可确定水的磅数。如果液体容量未知，则将以立方英尺为单位的容量乘以 0.80（大约 20% 的空间始终充满空气）。然后将该数值乘以 62.33 即可得到水箱中水的磅数。.

将最终数值（水的总磅数）与预计软水器再生剂量中的盐磅数进行比较。盐的磅数不应超过水箱中水总磅数的百分之一。.

软水器会对化粪池造成有害影响吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:36:10-05:00

软水器会对化粪池造成有害影响吗？

软水器的反冲洗和盐水排放物可以排入化粪池。但是，化粪池必须正确安装且容量足够，才能确保达到理想的效果。化粪池的容量选择至关重要。虽然许多州建议使用至少500加仑容量的化粪池，但即使是容量较小的化粪池，也能根据软水器排放的盐量提供足够的液体容量。.

许多公共卫生部门都认为软水器再生废水可以安全地排放到化粪池中。.

美国公共卫生署在《化粪池操作手册》中写道：“家用软水器产生的废盐水不会对化粪池的运行产生不利影响，但可能会略微缩短安装在结构性粘土土壤中的处理场的使用寿命。”

由此可见，必须考虑处置场所在土壤的类型。.

某些类型土壤中长期沉积高浓度的钠盐会导致土壤渗透性下降。此时，土壤无法吸收和输送废水，从而导致渗滤场的吸收能力逐渐降低。.

另一方面，软水器释放的钙离子和镁离子可能会疏通土壤，逆转钠盐的堵塞作用。.

迄今为止，还没有关于配水场因软水器再生废液而无法吸收钠盐的报告。.

如果对钠废液对配水区的影响存在严重疑虑，可以将盐水排放到干井中。通常情况下，干井（一个填满粗砾石的坑）可以使用多年。但是，只有在极少数情况下才需要使用干井。.

在排放到盐水箱可能存在问题的情况下，使用全自动软水器具有一定的优势。这些软水器可以设置为频繁补充盐，但每次补充的盐量较少。.

全自动软水器每次充水需要40到80加仑的水。由于运行时间大约需要一个小时，因此水流量较低。此外，软水过程通常设置在午夜到凌晨5点之间进行，这段时间家庭用水量很少或几乎没有用水。在这种情况下，软水器对化粪池容量的负担远小于自动洗碗机、洗衣机或马桶等用水设备。.

软水能做出更清澈的冰块吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:35:46-05:00

软水能做出更清澈的冰块吗？

事实上，去除水中的钙和镁对家庭自制冰块的质量影响甚微。原因在于，软化水并不会降低水中矿物质的总浓度。.

例如，软水器如果能去除水中的沉淀物、铁和锰，就能帮助生产出更干净的冰。.

当然，过滤器有助于去除制冰用水中的铁、浊度、异味和异味。.

在典型的餐厅制冰设备中，使用聚磷酸盐是一种经济实惠的水处理方法。聚磷酸盐能使水中的矿物质分散开来，从而最大限度地减少冰块的浑浊现象。.

如果添加浓度合适，聚磷酸盐还能控制制冰机中的水垢形成和腐蚀。建议添加浓度约为 5 ppm 以防止水垢形成，添加浓度约为 10 ppm 则可同时防止水垢形成和控制腐蚀。.

软化水应该用来浇灌室内植物，还是用来洒水浇灌花园或草坪？行政人员2014-01-12T15:35:25-05:00

软化水应该用来浇灌室内植物，还是用来洒水浇灌花园或草坪？

当水中硬度矿物质含量仅为中等水平（低于 10 gpg）时，钠浓度是否足以对植物造成严重危害还很难说。.

大多数室内植物需要特定的土壤条件才能健康生长。许多植物在微酸性土壤中生长最佳。如果软化水的硬度很高，那么软水中高浓度的钠很可能对植物有害。.

对于户外浇灌而言，使用软化水首先是一种浪费。此外，在硬度矿物质浓度较高的地方，软化水中的钠盐会抑制植物生长，甚至可能导致草坪死亡。.

离子交换软水器能否去除水中的放射性污染物？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

离子交换软水器能否去除水中的放射性污染物？

是的，软水器可以去除水中可能存在的约 80-90% 的放射性物质。.

然而，出于以下几个重要原因，不应使用软水器来达到此目的。(1) 它只能去除阳离子型放射性物质。.

（2）此外，该方法只能部分去除这些污染物（80-90%）。现在，根据可能的初始浓度，即使去除99%的放射性物质，也可能无法使水达到安全饮用标准。.

（3）此外，还存在如何将放射性离子排入污水系统的问题。这即使不是不可能，也是一项艰巨的任务。.

由于处置风险，不建议将放射性离子排放到污水系统中。使用后掩埋受污染的软水器也是不可接受的。用于去除水中放射性物质的设备应运送到集中处置场进行妥善处理。.

鉴于软化器的局限性，不建议使用软化器进行可靠、有效的去污。.

由于有些放射性物质是阴离子，而另一些是阳离子，因此需要使用强酸性阳离子树脂和强碱性阴离子树脂的脱盐装置。.

小型“一次性”除垢器可用于应急情况。这类设备是解决此问题的最令人满意的方案。.

软水会影响加湿器的运行吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:34:50-05:00

软水会影响加湿器的运行吗？

软水有助于加湿器的维护。.

硬水蒸发后，残留的矿物质会形成坚硬的水垢，通常需要一些强力处理（例如凿除或酸洗）才能去除。而使用软水时，残留物通常较软，一般只需用水冲洗或用刷子刷洗表面即可去除。.

需要记住的一点是：软化水并不会减少水中矿物质的总量；离子交换软化只是将钙和镁矿物质转化为钠矿物质。.

家用最常见的加湿器有一个敞开式水盘、一根连接水源的小管和一个浮球阀。当水蒸发时，浮球阀打开，让补充的水流入水盘。.

这种类型的装置迟早会被流入的水沉积的矿物质填满。.

如果在加湿器中使用软水，定期用新鲜软水冲洗可以降低矿物质浓度，并且该设备可以令人满意地运行。.

软水对热带鱼安全吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:34:31-05:00

软水对热带鱼安全吗？

是的，软水对大多数热带鱼来说都是合适的。据多位权威人士称，无论是完全软化的水还是市政软化水，用于水族箱都不会产生任何不良或毒性影响。.

从硬水更换为软水时，必须循序渐进地用新水替换旧水。这符合热带鱼适应任何环境变化的基本原则。这适用于水温、pH值、食物以及水的硬度。剧烈的变化当然会对这些鱼类脆弱的生理系统造成冲击，甚至导致死亡。.

最好每周更换约四分之一的鱼缸水，换成软水。最终，鱼缸里的水将基本都是软水，鱼类也不会因换水而受到任何不良影响。.

饮用经过离子交换软化的水，我的家人是否会缺乏维持健康所必需的矿物质？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

饮用经过离子交换软化的水，我的家人是否会缺乏维持健康所必需的矿物质？

不。人体主要通过食用食物而非饮水来获取维持健康所需的矿物质。.

人体可能会吸收或利用水中的矿物质，但在大多数情况下，吸收量并不显著。.

要想从水中摄取足够的矿物质，人每天需要喝很多加仑的水。一般来说，无论是高矿物质含量的水还是完全软化的水，都不能算是矿物质的重要来源。相比之下，一加仑牛奶所含的矿物质相当于一浴缸普通井水。.

软化水中含有多少钠？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

软化水中含有多少钠？

这取决于您家水的硬度，但平均而言，您摄入的钠中只有不到 3% 来自饮用软化水。据估计，普通人每天从各种来源摄入相当于两到三茶匙盐的钠。假设每天从食物中摄入 5 克（5000 毫克）钠，并饮用三夸脱水（例如咖啡、茶、果汁和饮用水），那么家用软水过程中产生的钠 (Na+) 含量与许多富含钠的食物的每日摄入量相比微乎其微。计算额外钠含量的公式如下：每夸脱软化水中钠的毫克数 = 水硬度（格令）× 7.5 毫克钠/格令硬度.

钠（氯化物）和钾（氯化物）有什么区别？行政人员2014-01-12T15:28:14-05:00

钠（氯化物）和钾（氯化物）有什么区别？

两者作用相同。它们在软水再生过程中都会补充软化树脂上的钙和镁。使用氯化钠时，软水在使用过程中会添加钠；使用氯化钾时，软水则会添加钾。医生建议从饮用水中去除钠源的人通常使用氯化钾。但对于一些肾脏或其他肾脏疾病患者来说，钾可能会加重病情。大多数健康人（>97%）可以安全使用氯化钠，而且氯化钠价格更低。如有任何疑问，请咨询医生。.

我可以直接在井水或蓄水池里放入软水盐来获得软水吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:28:01-05:00

我可以直接在井水或蓄水池里放入软水盐来获得软水吗？

不，要软化水，你需要一台软水机。软水机盐水箱里的盐并不能直接软化水，而是用来再生软水机里的树脂珠。这些树脂珠通过去除硬水中的离子（钙、镁和铁）来软化井水。.

你的食盐里含有化学物质吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:27:43-05:00

你的食盐里含有化学物质吗？

部分产品含有添加剂（主要是为了防止变硬或添加碘），而另一些则不含。请参阅产品包装或索取技术数据表。.

软水盐对动物有任何害处吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:27:30-05:00

软水盐对动物有任何害处吗？

与食品一样，软水盐不适用于人类或动物饲料。其颗粒大小不适合小型动物。此外，软水盐可能含有不适合动物饲料的添加剂。.

软水盐可以用来制作浴盐吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:27:19-05:00

软水盐可以用来制作浴盐吗？

建议仅使用太阳能盐。盐的最佳粒径为中等。目前市面上用于软化水的太阳能盐大多为粗粒或特粗粒，粒径较大。.

除了保持盐位在一半之外，在加注软水器水量方面还有其他好的经验法则吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:27:00-05:00

除了保持盐位在一半之外，在加注软水器水量方面还有其他好的经验法则吗？

松动盐罐边缘可能粘附的结块盐粒，确保将大块盐粒敲碎。将盐均匀地铺在盐罐内。确保水位适宜，以保证盐罐的最佳运行。.

给软水器水箱加水时，水位应该高于还是低于盐位？行政人员2014-01-12T15:26:45-05:00

给软水器水箱加水时，水位应该高于还是低于盐位？

水位应根据用户手册或水处理技术人员的建议进行设置。除非用户手册或水处理技术人员另有指示，否则盐位应保持在水位以上至少 3 至 4 英寸处。.

在软水器中混合不同种类的盐有害吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:26:26-05:00

在软水器中混合不同种类的盐有害吗？

一般来说，不建议混用软水器；但是，某些软水器是专为特定软水产品设计的，使用其他产品可能无法正常工作。例如，不建议在柜式软水器中使用岩盐，因为这类软水器不易清洁，而岩盐会留下不溶性残留物，还可能造成堵塞。同样，也不建议混合使用粗细不同的软水产品（例如颗粒状软水盐和岩盐），因为这样做也可能导致堵塞。为了避免这些问题，建议您在添加另一种软水盐之前，先让软水器中的一种软水盐完全用完（或几乎用完）。.

软化盐可以用于食品加工吗，例如罐头食品或肉类包装？行政人员2014-01-12T15:26:12-05:00

软化盐可以用于食品加工吗，例如罐头食品或肉类包装？

虽然软水颗粒可能由食品级盐制成，但颗粒压制过程本身并不符合“食品级”标准。因此，不建议将软水颗粒直接用于食品加工。出于同样的原因，其他软水盐产品，如太阳盐、岩盐和盐块，也不建议用于食品加工。.

块状盐和颗粒状盐有什么区别？行政人员2014-01-12T15:25:54-05:00

块状盐和颗粒状盐有什么区别？

是的，从物理角度来看，块状盐的厚度均匀，约为 1/4 英寸，长度和宽度略有不同。颗粒状盐呈枕头状或润喉糖状，厚度也可能有所不同。从化学纯度和功能性角度来看，两者几乎没有区别，尽管块状盐可能略微更耐用一些。.

我可以在冰淇淋机里使用软水盐吗？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

我可以在冰淇淋机里使用软水盐吗？

盐能降低水的冰点，因此撒在冰上可以达到冰点以下的温度。任何类型的盐，包括食盐，都可以用于此目的。由于盐最终会融化冰，所以最好使用粗盐，因为它溶解得更慢。岩盐或太阳能软水盐颗粒通常较粗，非常适合用于此目的。颗粒状盐和Sun Gems®盐颗粒太粗，不宜使用。.

有些盐比其他盐更纯净吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:25:23-05:00

有些盐比其他盐更纯净吗？

是的。蒸发盐的纯度范围为99.7%至99.991%（以TP3T计），均为氯化钠。太阳盐的纯度通常为99.6%至99.81%（以TP3T计），均为氯化钠。用于水处理的岩盐的纯度可能在95%至98.51%以上（以TP3T计），具体取决于盐的来源。.

我可以把软水器里的盐水排放到草坪上吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:25:00-05:00

我可以把软水器里的盐水排放到草坪上吗？

应避免直接排放氯化钠或氯化钾盐水。盐水会改变草类（植物）赖以调节水分需求的渗透压。水分供应失衡会导致草坪枯黄，最终死亡。可使用20份水兑1份盐水的稀释比例。.

软水器排出的盐水会损害我的化粪池系统吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:24:45-05:00

软水器排出的盐水会损害我的化粪池系统吗？

水质协会的研究表明，只要化粪池位置正确且拥有足够的渗滤场，软水器排放的盐水就不会对其运行造成任何影响。这主要是由于稀释作用和渗滤场的排水作用。.

我的软水器盐水箱里有棕色/黑色的油状物。这是盐造成的吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:23:19-05:00

我的软水器盐水箱里有棕色/黑色的油状物。这是盐造成的吗？

随着时间的推移，盐或供水中的不溶于水的物质可能会在储盐罐中积聚。这些不溶于水的物质可能呈棕色或黑色污泥状，也可能呈油状。它通常是盐中天然矿物包裹体的产物，且一般为无机物。.

如何判断我的软水器中的树脂是否需要更换？行政人员2014-01-12T15:23:03-05:00

如何判断我的软水器中的树脂是否需要更换？

当排除了所有其他可能的原因，例如所用盐的问题和/或软水器部件的基本机械故障，而水仍然不够软时，可能就需要考虑更换树脂或软水器了。经验表明，大多数离子交换树脂的使用寿命为20至25年，具体取决于用水量。.

我知道除了盐以外，还有其他东西可以修复我的软水器。那是什么呢？行政人员2014-01-12T15:22:38-05:00

我知道除了盐以外，还有其他东西可以修复我的软水器。那是什么呢？

氯化钾可用于离子交换树脂的再生。它是一种特殊的盐，在离子交换过程中使用钾离子而非钠离子。氯化钾价格更高。.

我可以在软水器中使用除冰盐吗？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

我可以在软水器中使用除冰盐吗？

我们不建议这样做。请注意，除冰盐含有较多的不溶物，需要更频繁地清理盐水箱。此外，除冰盐颗粒较小，不适合软水器使用。.

如果我把你们的软水盐撒在车道上除冰，会不会对混凝土造成损害？行政人员2014-01-12T15:21:54-05:00

如果我把你们的软水盐撒在车道上除冰，会不会对混凝土造成损害？

最佳做法是购买专为除雪除冰而设计的产品，并严格按照包装上的使用说明进行操作。太阳盐和岩盐可用于清除混凝土人行道、停车场和沥青路面上的积雪和冰。由于颗粒较大，不建议使用颗粒状或添加了除铁剂的颗粒状产品。.

使用方法：清除多余积雪。将每平方码 1/2 至 1 杯的融雪剂均匀撒在冰面和压实的积雪表面。用量和融雪效果取决于冰面和压实积雪的温度和厚度。根据需要重复使用。冰雪融化后，清除路面上的冰雪泥浆和多余的融雪剂，以维护混凝土的良好状态。注意：所有融雪剂的作用原理都是降低水的冰点。这会导致融化的冰雪更频繁地经历冻融循环，从而造成混凝土剥落（表面起皮）。因此，仅适用于已正确铺设、养护和密封的含气混凝土。为减少冻融循环和潜在损害的可能性，应及时清除形成的冰雪泥浆。请勿用于多孔或养护不当的混凝土、使用时间不足一年的混凝土、木材或其他多孔材料。与任何融雪剂一样，当除冰表面附近有草坪和植被时，应格外小心，因为过量使用可能会造成损害。使用本产品风险自负。.

我最近换用了你们的产品，现在衣服洗得没以前那么干净了？行政人员2014-01-12T15:21:36-05:00

我最近换用了你们的产品，现在衣服洗得没以前那么干净了？

除非软水器发生故障，或者盐结块或糊化，离子交换树脂尚未再生，否则这种变化不会降低洗涤能力。.

我往软水器里加了盐，但还是没有软水。这是怎么回事？行政人员2014-01-12T15:21:21-05:00

我往软水器里加了盐，但还是没有软水。这是怎么回事？

可能是盐的停留时间过短，也就是说，盐被倒入储盐罐后，软水器的再生循环立即启动。也可能是软水器故障，或者盐桥或盐糊化导致盐水生成减少或消失。.

我的软水器里盐溶解得太快了。为什么？行政人员2014-01-12T15:21:01-05:00

我的软水器里盐溶解得太快了。为什么？

这个问题通常出现在从一种软水盐换用另一种软水盐时，例如从颗粒状软水盐换成太阳能软水盐。您遇到的情况可能与两种产品的堆积密度不同有关。晶体越紧密排列，体积就越小。这会让人感觉盐溶解得太快。此外，如果您的软水机初始水位是按照颗粒状软水盐设置的，那么对于太阳能软水盐来说，水位可能过高（即水箱中水量过多，溶解的盐也过多），因此可能需要降低水位。请遵循软水机制造商的说明。.

实际上，盐的溶解量只能达到饱和盐水（26.41TP³T，重量比）的程度。使用哪种盐并不重要。当盐水达到盐的饱和状态时，就无法再溶解更多的盐了。因此，尽管外观可能有所不同，但无论使用何种盐产品或形态，盐的用量都是相同的。.

我的盐不溶解，怎么办？行政人员2014-01-12T15:20:45-05:00

我的盐不溶解，怎么办？

检查水面处的盐，看是否形成固体块（称为“盐桥”），或者细小的“糊状”盐是否沉在水箱底部（称为“盐泥”）。如果是盐桥，小心地将其弄碎，使其落入下方的水中。如果是盐泥，取出完好的盐粒，舀出“糊状”盐，然后重新装入完好的盐粒。.

如果在添加新盐时盐罐是空的，请检查水箱内的水位。如果水位低于正常值，可能是浮子卡在了内部的侧柱里。打开盖子，检查浮子机构是否运转顺畅。如果运转不畅，请联系软水机制造商的售后服务部门，安排上门维修。.

我的自来水闻起来像臭鸡蛋。有什么盐可以去除这种味道吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:20:30-05:00

我的自来水闻起来像臭鸡蛋。有什么盐可以去除这种味道吗？

臭鸡蛋味通常与供水中可能存在的硫化氢气体有关。盐并不能去除这种气味或气体。您必须采取其他措施来去除气体。.

我可以在软水机里使用软水块吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:20:15-05:00

我可以在软水机里使用软水块吗？

通常情况下，盐块用于专门设计的储盐罐中。为了确保正常运行，储盐罐内的水位会升高，使盐块始终浸没在水中，从而最大限度地形成盐水。如果您想改用盐块，可能需要重新设置储盐罐内的水位。.

我买的这些颗粒看起来和以前买的略微有些变色。它们脏了吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:19:59-05:00

我买的这些颗粒看起来和以前买的略微有些变色。它们脏了吗？

颗粒可以由压实的蒸发盐或压实的太阳盐制成。后者通常颜色略深。.

我在太阳能盐里发现了一些黑色小点。这会损坏我的软水器吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:19:30-05:00

我在太阳能盐里发现了一些黑色小点。这会损坏我的软水器吗？

不，太阳盐是一种通过蒸发海水制成的天然产品。它的收获方式很像农作物，因此可能含有微小的杂质，例如泥土、小卵石和其他天然物质。.

由于这些夹杂物的密度与盐罐底部的盐水密度不同，它们通常会留在盐罐中。密度较低的物质，如果在再生过程中随盐水一起进入树脂，通常会在再生后的冲洗循环中从树脂中冲洗掉。.

我应该为软水器购买哪种盐？行政人员2014-01-12T15:19:06-05:00

我应该为软水器购买哪种盐？

最适合特定软水机的盐的类型会根据软水机的设计而有所不同。通常，柜式一体式软水机需要低水不溶物含量的盐，而带有独立储盐罐的并排式软水机更易于清洁，因此在选择盐产品方面有更大的灵活性。不过，我们通常建议使用高纯度的颗粒状盐。.

我使用的是添加了除铁剂的颗粒清洁剂，但我的马桶、水槽和衣物上仍然有锈渍。为什么没有效果？行政人员2014-01-12T15:18:50-05:00

我使用的是添加了除铁剂的颗粒清洁剂，但我的马桶、水槽和衣物上仍然有锈渍。为什么没有效果？

使用除铁添加剂去除水中的铁含量仅限于铁含量低于 2 ppm（百万分之二）的水。如果铁含量较高，则应定期使用强效单剂量清洁剂（通常可在水处理设备经销商或五金店购买）。如果您的水中铁含量很高，则可能需要安装专用除铁过滤器。.

我应该清理一下盐水箱吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:18:33-05:00

我应该清理一下盐水箱吗？

除非所用盐产品含有大量水不溶性物质，或者出现严重故障（例如架桥），否则通常无需清理盐水箱。有些人选择每年让软水器中的盐完全溶解一次，以便进行目视检查，确保没有积聚物。如果出现积聚物，则应将其清理干净，以防止软水器故障。但是，年度检查并非强制性要求。.

我家用的是软水机，用的是太阳能盐。太阳能盐会粘在一起，有时候我得用棍子把它敲开。有什么办法可以防止这种情况发生吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:18:11-05:00

我家用的是软水机，用的是太阳能盐。太阳能盐会粘在一起，有时候我得用棍子把它敲开。有什么办法可以防止这种情况发生吗？

如果这种情况经常发生，您可以通过限制添加到“盐罐”中的盐量来减少这种倾向（例如，如果目前添加 4 袋 40 磅的盐，则减少到 2 袋）。.

我软水器里的盐结成了一大块，该怎么办？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

我软水器里的盐结成了一大块，该怎么办？

这种被称为“架桥”或“糊状”的状况需要人工打散盐块，以促进盐水流动。一般来说，动手能力强的人可以完成这项工作，但也可以联系水处理设备经销商安排上门服务。.

商店里岩盐更便宜。它能用在我的软水器里吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:17:55-05:00

商店里岩盐更便宜。它能用在我的软水器里吗？

岩盐可以用于软水器；但是，由于岩盐中含有相对较高浓度的水不溶物，因此建议仅在用户愿意定期清理盐水箱的情况下使用。对于一般的家用软水器，每年可能需要清理 2 到 3 次。.

我应该用颗粒燃料还是太阳能盐？行政人员2014-01-12T15:16:39-05:00

我应该用颗粒燃料还是太阳能盐？

由于太阳能盐比（蒸发盐）颗粒含有略多的水不溶物，因此应考虑盐的用量、软水器的清洁频率和软水器的设计。如果盐的用量较少，两种产品或许可以互换使用。如果盐的用量较大，使用太阳能盐时水不溶物会更快积累，因此需要更频繁地清洁盐水箱/储水箱。清洁盐水箱可能是一项比较麻烦的工作。.

我在商店里看到的软水盐种类有什么区别？行政人员2014-01-12T15:16:05-05:00

我在商店里看到的软水盐种类有什么区别？

零售店里常见的盐有三种：岩盐、太阳盐（晶体）和蒸发盐（颗粒）。.

岩盐是一种天然矿物，通过传统采矿方法从地下盐矿床中提取。其化学纯度变化较大，氯化钠含量在98%至99%之间。其水不溶物含量约为0.5%至1.5%，主要成分是硫酸钙这种杂质。.

太阳盐是一种天然产品，通过蒸发海水或内陆盐水源获得。其氯化钠含量为99.5%或更高，水不溶物含量低于0.03%。太阳盐最常见的销售形式是晶体，但也可能以压缩颗粒或块状出售。.

蒸发盐的生产方法是：首先对地下层状盐矿进行溶液开采，将盐溶解成盐水，然后利用天然气或煤炭等能源蒸发水分。蒸发盐（以压实颗粒、片状盐（俗称盐块）或盐块的形式存在）的氯化钠含量范围为99.6%至99.99%。水不溶物含量通常低于0.01%。.

我应该多久往软水器里加一次盐？行政人员2014-01-12T15:14:56-05:00

我应该多久往软水器里加一次盐？

软水机再生次数越多，需要添加盐的频率也就越高。一般来说，每月检查一次软水机比较合适。为了保持水质始终柔软，请始终保持盐位至少在半满状态，但切勿过量添加。.

什么是桥接？行政人员2014-01-12T15:14:30-05:00

什么是桥接？

盐箱中有时会出现盐桥现象，盐粒相互粘连形成“桥梁”，阻碍其与箱内水接触。您可以使用100%水溶性颗粒产品来消除盐桥现象。.

什么是雪橇犬训练？我为什么要避免它？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

什么是雪橇犬训练？我为什么要避免它？

有时，如果您使用颗粒状或块状的盐，由于颗粒或块状盐过于松散，它们可能会分解成细小的蒸发盐晶体——类似于食盐。这些晶体可能会相互粘连，在盐水箱中形成厚厚的块状物。这种粘连可能会中断盐水的产生——而盐水是软水器中树脂珠恢复活力的关键。没有盐水，软水器就无法产生软水。.

盐分会进入我的饮用水吗？行政人员2014-01-12T15:12:20-05:00

盐分会进入我的饮用水吗？

不。软水器中盐的唯一作用是再生树脂珠，这些树脂珠才是真正去除水中硬度的物质。这种再生过程不会让水尝起来有咸味，也不会显著增加钠的摄入量。.

什么是TDS？行政人员2013-10-22T15:23:18-05:00

什么是TDS？

总溶解固体（TDS）是指溶解在一定体积水中的可移动带电离子的总量，包括矿物质、盐类或金属，单位为毫克/升（mg/L），也称为百万分之几（ppm）。TDS与水的纯度和水净化系统的质量直接相关，并对所有消耗、生活在水中或使用水的生物（无论是有机物还是无机物）产生影响，无论好坏。.

有趣的水知识行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

有趣的水知识

美国自来水公司在短短 16 小时内生产的饮用水量，就相当于石油行业一年的石油产量。.

当我们使用水时，通常会向水中添加污染物，例如肥皂、食品和化学品，这些污染物必须在水再次使用之前去除。.

地球表面近四分之三被水覆盖，但只有不到 1% 的水适合用常规水处理方法饮用。.

冰块之所以能漂浮，是因为冰的密度比水小。水结冰时会形成类似网格的结构，这种结构会产生浮力，使冰能够漂浮。.

饮用水的硬度是由钙和镁这两种无毒的天然矿物质造成的。过高的硬度会导致肥皂难以起泡，餐具上留下水渍，并降低水流速度。.

水是天然的健康饮品。它不含脂肪、不含卡路里、不含胆固醇。.

因为成人体内60%的成分是水，所以必须补充通过呼吸、出汗和排泄流失的水分。对大多数人来说，这相当于每天大约需要8杯（2升）水。我们不仅可以通过饮水来补充水分，还可以通过食物和其他饮料来补充水分。.

通过蒸发、凝结、降水和渗透等过程——即水循环——地球上的水总量保持不变。然而，随着需求的持续增长，淡水资源却在不断减少。.

资料来源：美国自来水厂协会（AWWA），2010年

水质、净化和过滤的历史行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

水质、净化和过滤的历史

水是地球生命最重要的组成部分之一，然而我们中的许多人却对此习以为常。没有水，地球上的生命将不复存在。植物、动物和人类都需要水。从某种意义上说，水是生命的电池。然而，如果水质不洁净，无法饮用，也会对人体造成危害。.

水的存在本身就具有双重性……它既是生命的赋予者，也是生命的夺走者。正因如此，自人类诞生之初，人们就一直在探索获取纯净水的方法。考古证据表明，早在史前时代，人们就开始尝试净化水，使其口感更佳。.

早期人类认为水的纯净度取决于味道；如果水尝起来令人愉悦，那么它就是纯净的。因此，古代的净水方法是在水中添加草药或鲜花，但这显然不是真正的净水方法，也无法阻止人们继续寻找更纯净的水源。.

公元前2000年，出现了关于医学问题的梵文文献，称为《医学大全》。 苏斯鲁塔本集. 《苏斯鲁塔本集》宣称：“不洁净的水可以通过在火上煮沸、在阳光下加热、或将加热的铁浸入其中来净化，也可以通过沙子和粗砾石过滤，然后使其冷却来净化。”

在底比斯阿蒙霍特普二世陵墓的墙壁上发现了铭文。铭文描绘了埃及人净化水的方法，即通过一系列灯芯虹吸管抽取水。该铭文的年代经鉴定为公元前1450年。.

圣经中甚至记载了可能用于净化水的方法。在出埃及记15:22-27中，摩西和以色列人来到玛拉，发现那里的水是苦的。摩西被指引到一棵树前，被告知要将树放在玛拉的水中。摩西照做了，玛拉的水从此变得甘甜。虽然我们不清楚这棵树是什么树，也不清楚当时是否使用了某种过滤方法，但这些证据至少表明当时人们关注水质问题。.

另一种早期的滤水方法是由著名的古希腊医生希波克拉底在公元前3世纪发明的。他发现煮沸的水无法去除悬浮固体，于是用布袋在煮沸后过滤水。这种方法后来被称为“希波克拉底袖套’。”

1627年，弗朗西斯·培根爵士汇编了10项实验。 十个世纪的自然史. 他读到一篇关于用沙子过滤海水并成功净化海水的实验报道后，便相信水也可以通过沙子过滤。.

17世纪末，意大利医生卢卡斯·安东尼乌斯·波提乌斯（Lucas Antonius Portius）撰写了关于多重砂滤法的文章。该方法包含三对砂滤器，分别采用向下和向上流动的方式。.

这些发现之后，人们开发了沙滤器和雨水蓄水池。1703年，法国科学家拉伊尔提议，所有家庭都应该配备雨水蓄水池和沙滤器。100年后，苏格兰佩斯利建成了第一座市政水处理厂。.

在 20 世纪和 21 世纪，水质变得更加重要，人们开发了许多水净化和过滤方法。.

参考：
1. 国家环境服务中心： http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/ndwc/ndwc_DWH_1.html
2.《水质与处理：公共供水手册》。美国自来水厂协会（AWWA）。1971年。.

水是什么？行政人员2026-04-04T12:43:53-05:00

水是什么？

水 (H₂水（O）对地球上的生命至关重要，地球表面超过三分之二是由固态、气态和液态的水组成的——水是地球上唯一天然存在于所有三种物理状态的化合物。.

液态水的特性有助于溶解分子，从而促进化学反应的发生，为生命创造适宜的环境。代谢物和营养物质等重要物质能够在液态水中进行微观和宏观的运输。水还能极大地帮助酶催化化学反应，这对生命至关重要。.

纯水的冰点为 0°C (32°F)，沸点为 100°C (212°F)，但杂质会改变这些数值。液态水如此宽广的温度范围也有助于地球上生命的延续，因为正常的天气波动不会对这个大部分被水覆盖的星球造成灾难性的影响。.

人体也主要由水构成，我们依赖水来种植食物和生存。全球现代工业基础设施需要水用于各种用途，从冷却机器到运输和航运。无数生物生活在淡水、海水或盐水中，无论是水坑还是海洋。.

水确实是地球上创造和维持生命不可或缺的资源之一。.