You’re Seeing Spots from Sodium in Soft Water

You may be wondering why a water softener can’t reduce TDS when it is removing minerals like calcium and magnesium. That’s because water softeners use an ion exchange process to replace hard minerals with sodium ions. Since sodium ions are being exchanged for calcium and magnesium ions, the TDS of your water isn’t directly affected. For every calcium and magnesium ion taken out, a sodium ion is put in. The higher the mineral content in your water, the more sodium is exchanged to soften it. The sodium content of softened water completely depends on how hard it was to begin with. Softened water is certainly better for cleaning and bathing, and will extend the life of appliances like your washing machine and water heater. However, the spotting you notice from soft water may actually be sodium spots. When water evaporates from your clean dishes or after washing your car, a powdery sodium residue could be left behind. The good news is, sodium spotting can be very easily wiped off with a towel. The same cannot be said for soap scum and limescale spotting. You can also avoid sodium spots by thoroughly hand drying your car or dishes instead of letting them air dry.

Winterizing your water softener

WINTERIZING YOUR WATER SOFTENER – WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW Source : WQA Do you need to winterize your water softener or filter? And if so, what does winterization involve? That depends on the situation… If you keep your water softener or filter in the basement of an occupied home, you shouldn’t have to worry about winterization. You will want to winterize your system if you have any of the following: A unit installed in an unheated garage A vacation home you’re not using in the winter You leave your home for an extended winter vacation In all of these situations, it is smart to take precautions that ensure your water softener will be protected in below freezing temperatures. Frozen pipes could lead to pipes that burst, which could cause significant damage to your property as well as your water treatment equipment. Let’s take a look at some helpful advice. Insulation and Extra Heating For people who plan to continue using their water softener during the winter, there are a few simple things you can do to make sure it doesn’t freeze in cold weather. If you live in a milder climate, where the weather doesn’t get extremely cold, insulating your pipes and tanks should be enough to protect your system during the winter. You can purchase pipe insulation wrap at any home improvement store. Heat tape or electric pipe heating cables for the water lines are also a good idea. When it comes to water softener tanks, some homeowners have an insulated box built around the system. You can also purchase plumbing insulation in sheets, or wrap an insulation blanket around them. There are even special jackets designed specifically for water softener tanks. Because of the salt saturation, your brine tank is only likely to freeze in very cold climates where temperatures can drop below zero. If you are using your water softener year round, the most important thing is to keep it warm enough to prevent freezing, which is why a space heater in your garage can help. Remember, you only need to keep the temperature above 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and you should always take safety precautions as per the manufacture when using a space heater. Only turn it on when you know it is necessary. Running water will also prevent freezing. If you’re only going to be away for a few days, you could leave a faucet running at a slow trickle to keep things moving in those pipes while you’re gone. Although not a cure-all, this will at times, prevent full-on freezing and bursting from freezing pipes. Draining and Disconnecting a Water Softener If you do not plan on using your water softener during the winter, and the heat in your residence will be turned off during that time, there are specific steps you should follow to disconnect, drain, and store your system. It is recommended that you drain the tanks. This ensures there won’t be any water left in the system that could freeze and cause damage. You’ll need to put the softener into its regeneration cycle and wait until you notice the system backwashing water into the drain. At this point, if your water softener has a manual bypass valve, it should be put into the bypass position to turn off the supply of water to the water softener. This will isolate and protect your system from the rest of the building’s supply of water during this time. Remove the unit from the bypass valve and proceed to remove the valve from the tank. Once the riser tube is exposed, use plastic 3/8” – 1/2” plastic-tubing long enough to each the bottom of the riser tube and lower distributor. Siphoning the water from the media tank is recommended at this point. The slower process of siphoning will ensure that all the water is removed from the tank. After water has stopped flowing from the siphon tubing, allow the tank to sit for 5 to 10 minutes. This additional time allows for all the water to completely settle to the bottom of media tank. At that time you can attempt to siphon the balance of water which has settled out. The majority of standing water should be scooped out of the brine tank, but the solution that’s left should not freeze because of the high salt content. Consult your user’s manual for detailed instructions on how to completely drain your tanks, or call a water treatment professional for help. Next, unplug the water softener or turn off the switch to the power source. You should be able to leave the brine tank in the cold, but you may want to completely remove and store your softener tank in a warmer area. Still Have Questions? Find a Water-Right Expert!

Is clear water clean?

<div class="fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column fusion-builder-column-1 fusion_builder_column_1_1 1_1 fusion-flex-column" style="--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:100%;--awb-flex-grow:0;--awb-flex-shrink:0;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:0px;--awb-margin-bottom-large:0px;--awb-spacing-left-large:0px;--awb-width-medium:100%;--awb-flex-grow-medium:;--awb-flex-shrink-medium:;--awb-spacing-right-medium:0px;--awb-spacing-left-medium:0px;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-flex-grow-small:;--awb-flex-shrink-small:;--awb-spacing-right-small:0px;--awb-spacing-left-small:0px;"> Clear water is not always a sign of clean water, report from CNN below. http://www.cnn.com/2017/11/09/health/cdc-water-contamination-reports/index.html

What causes scale to deposit?

<div class="fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column fusion-builder-column-2 fusion_builder_column_1_1 1_1 fusion-flex-column" style="--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:100%;--awb-flex-grow:0;--awb-flex-shrink:0;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:0px;--awb-margin-bottom-large:0px;--awb-spacing-left-large:0px;--awb-width-medium:100%;--awb-flex-grow-medium:;--awb-flex-shrink-medium:;--awb-spacing-right-medium:0px;--awb-spacing-left-medium:0px;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-flex-grow-small:;--awb-flex-shrink-small:;--awb-spacing-right-small:0px;--awb-spacing-left-small:0px;"> If your water is soft meaning low in hardness minerals you generally don’t have an issue with limescale deposits. However, if you have hard water (most people do) and it’s not treated you’ll see calcium carbonate deposits on your fixtures etc. So, what causes scale to deposit? When calcium levels become supersaturated in water it can no longer be held in solution and it’s forced out, combining with bicarbonate to form calcium carbonate in its calcite state. There are two main causes of supersaturation: Temperature increase, the most obvious as we see scale in kettles and on heat elements. A pH increase, often due to a drop in pressure as carbonic acid flashes off as CO2 (think of the pssssst when you open Coke bottle). The acid reduction causes the pH to shoot up. You’ll have noticed cold water scaling at drinking water fountains.

I see ads for “No Salt” needed water conditioners. How do they work without using salt?

1. Many dealers will advertise a no salt water conditioner. Any brand of water conditioner can be operated without using salt. This is done by using a salt substitute, potassium chloride. It generally costs twice as much as regular salt ( sodium chloride ), and can be difficult to find in some areas. Also, it is recommended to increase the salt setting on your control valve by about 10 % , when using a salt substitute. This is because it is not as efficient in providing the needed negative ions to the resin beads as regular salt. 2. Some companies offer catalytic filters and/or magnetic or Anti-Scale devices to “soften” your water that do not use salt, or anything else to regenerate their product. Buyer beware! If a technology had been developed that could replace a resin based water conditioner, then everyone would be selling it. I know I would. Those salt bags are heavy! If you have a water softener now, you will be very dis-pleased with the over priced “Anti-Scale” products, should you switch. I’ve been told that many times over the years by people who tried them. For more details, I’d recommend this webpage written by a retired chemist. http://www.chem1.com/CQ/ And this one, http://www.uswatersystems.com/blog/2010/12/no-sal… And this one, http://ths.gardenweb.com/forums/load/plumbing/msg… Please do some “home work” before you waste a lot of money on something that sounds too good to be true. *** Another customer wrote / asked: I was tempted to switched to salt-free water conditioning system. What’s your opinion on those unit like www.nuvoh2o.com ? They claimed that you only need to replace the filter cartridge twice a year making it almost maintenance free? *** My opinion is they don’t work… they do NOT soften the water, nor do they remove manganese or iron from the water. Their “anti-scaling” process is very limited in it’s benefit. And anyone who has enjoyed true “conditioned” water, is always disappointed if they switch to this OVER PRICED method. You won’t find those “testimonials” on their website. And the Filter Cartridges are just Carbon Filters, because the media can not tolerate chlorine in the water supply, so it must be removed first. Most Dealers use full size tanks with 1 cu.ft. of activated carbon instead of “cartridges” for better flow rate, and longer time before needing replacement of the carbon ( every 1 – 5 years depending on application ).

What Is NSF Certification?

Millions of people take the safety of their food, water and consumer products for granted on a daily basis. Why? Because of three letters: NSF. NSF certification is your key to making sure that the products you use meet strict standards for public health protection. Choosing a product certified by NSF lets you know the company complies with strict standards and procedures imposed by NSF. From extensive product testing and material analyses to unannounced plant inspections, every aspect of a product’s development is thoroughly evaluated before it can earn our certification. Most importantly, NSF certification is not a one-time event, but involves regular on-site inspections of manufacturing facilities and regular re-testing of products to ensure that they continue to meet the same high standards required to maintain certification over time. If for any reason a product fails to meet one or more certification criteria, NSF will take enforcement actions to protect you, including product recall, public notification or de-certification. Products that earn NSF certification are said to be “NSF certified” or “NSF listed” and display the applicable NSF certification mark to show that they have been tested by one of today’s most respected independent product testing organizations.

What is Water Softener?

<img fetchpriority="high" decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3165" alt="Softenerdiagram" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Softenerdiagram-300x235.gif" width="300" height="235" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Softenerdiagram-64x50.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Softenerdiagram-120x94.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Softenerdiagram-300x235.gif 300w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> 1. Hard water 1.1 What is hard water? When water is referred to as ‘hard’ this simply means, that it contains more minerals than ordinary water. These are especially the minerals calcium and magnesium. The degree of hardness of the water increases, when more calcium and magnesium dissolves. Magnesium and calcium are positively charged ions. Because of their presence, other positively charged ions will dissolve less easily in hard water than in water that does not contain calcium and magnesium. This is the cause of the fact that soap doesn’t really dissolve in hard water. 1.2 Which industries attach value to hardness of water? In many industrial applications, such as the drinking water preparation, in breweries and in sodas, but also for cooling- and boiler feed water the hardness of the water is very important. 2. Water softening 2.1 What is water softening? When water contains a significant amount of calcium and magnesium, it is called hard water. Hard water is known to clog pipes and to complicate soap and detergent dissolving in water. Water softening is a technique that serves the removal of the ions that cause the water to be hard, in most cases calcium and magnesium ions. Iron ions may also be removed during softening. The best way to soften water is to use a water softener unit and connect it directly to the water supply. 2.2 What is a water softener? A water softener is a unit that is used to soften water, by removing the minerals that cause the water to be hard. 2.3 Why is water softening applied? Water softening is an important process, because the hardness of water in households and companies is reduced during this process. When water is hard, it can clog pipes and soap will dissolve in it less easily. Water softening can prevent these negative effects. Hard water causes a higher risk of lime scale deposits in household water systems. Due to this lime scale build-up, pipes are blocked and the efficiency of hot boilers and tanks is reduced. This increases the cost of domestic water heating by about fifteen to twenty percent. Another negative effect of lime scale is that it has damaging effects on household machinery, such as laundry machines. Water softening means expanding the life span of household machine, such as laundry machines, and the life span of pipelines. It also contributes to the improved working, and longer lifespan of solar heating systems, air conditioning units and many other water-based applications. 2.4 What does a water softener do? Water softeners are specific ion exchangers that are designed to remove ions, which are positively charged. Softeners mainly remove calcium (Ca 2+ ) and magnesium (Mg 2+ ) ions. Calcium and magnesium are often referred to as ‘hardness minerals’. Softeners are sometimes even applied to remove iron. The softening devices are able to remove up to five milligrams per litre (5 mg/L) of dissolved iron. Softeners can operate automatic, semi-automatic, or manual. Each type is rated on the amount of hardness it can remove before regeneration is necessary. A water softener collects hardness minerals within its conditioning tank and from time to time flushes them away to drain. Ion exchangers are often used for water softening. When an ion exchanger is applied for water softening, it will replace the calcium and magnesium ions in the water with other ions, for instance sodium or potassium . The exchanger ions are added to the ion exchanger reservoir as sodium and potassium salts (NaCl and KCl). 2.5 How long does a water softener last? A good water softener will last many years. Softeners that were supplied in the 1980’s may still work, and many need little maintenance, besides filling them with salt occasionally. 3. Softening salts 3.1 Which types of salt are sold for application in a water softener? For water softening, three types of salt are generally sold: – Rock salt – Solar salt – Evaporated salt Rock salt as a mineral occurs naturally in the ground. It is obtained from underground salt deposits by traditional mining methods. It contains between ninety-eight and ninety-nine percent sodium chloride. It has a water insolubility level of about 0.5-1.5%, being mainly calcium sulphate. Its most important component is calcium sulphate. Solar salt as a natural product is obtained mainly through evaporation of seawater. It contains 85% sodium chloride. It has a water insolubility level of less than 0.03%. It is usually sold in crystal form. Sometimes it is also sold in pellets. Evaporated salt is obtained through mining underground salt deposits of dissolving salt. The moisture is then evaporated, using energy from natural gas or coal. Evaporated salt contains between 99.6 and 99.99% sodium chloride. 3.2 Should we use rock salt, evaporated salt or solar salt in a water softener? Rock salt contains a lot of matter that is not water-soluble. As a result, the softening reservoirs have to be cleaned much more regularly, when rock salt is used. Rock salt is cheaper than evaporated salt and solar salt, but reservoir cleaning may take up a lot of your time and energy. Solar salt contains a bit more water-insoluble matter than evaporated salt. When one makes a decision about which salt to use, consideration should be given to how much salt is used, how often the softener needs cleanout, and the softener design. If salt usage is low, the products could be used alternately. If salt usage is high, insoluble salts will build up faster when using solar salt. Additionally, the reservoir will need more frequent cleaning. In that case evaporated salt is recommended. 3.3 Is it harmful to mix different kinds of salt in a water softener? It is generally not harmful to mix salts in a water softener, but there are types of softeners that are designed for specific water softening products. When using alternative products, these softeners will not function well. Mixing evaporated salt with rock salt is not recommended, as this could clog the softening reservoir. It is recommended that you allow your unit to go empty of one type of salt before adding another to avoid the occurrence of any problems. 3.4 How often should one add salt to a softener? Salt is usually added to the reservoir during regeneration of the softener. The more often a softener is regenerated, the more often salt needs to be added. Usually water softeners are checked once a month. To guarantee a satisfactory production of soft water, the salt level should be kept at least half-full at all times. 3.5 How come water sometimes does not become softer when salt is added? Before salt starts working in a water softener it needs a little residence time within the reservoir, since the salt is dissolving slowly. When one immediately starts regeneration after adding salt to the reservoir, the water softener may not work according to standards. When the water softening does not take place it could also indicate softener malfunction, or a problem with the salt that is applied. 4. Softening costs 4.1 How much does a water softener cost? Some softeners are more efficient than others and as a result the prizes may differ. There are time operated softeners and water meter-controlled softeners available. The water meter-controlled units produce the softest water per pound of salt. Some softeners work on electricity, but some more recent water softeners use waterpower. Costs of a water softener greatly depend upon the type of water softener and the type of energy that is used, but also upon the hardness of the water that needs softening and the water use. When the water is very hard and it is used heavily, the costs of softening will rise. Generally the costs of a water softener can vary between $ 0,20 and $ 0,40 a day. The costs of water softeners are usually far outweighed by the benefits and cost savings obtained, through using softened water. 4.2 How much does a water softener cost during operation? The running cost is merely the cost of salt. This is likely to be around $ 1,95 per person in the household in a month. 5. Softening drinking water 5.1 Do water-producing companies always produce softened water? Although water-producing companies do have the opportunity to produce softened water, they will not always do so. A water producing company only has to add a water softener in its water purification system, to produce softened water cheaply. But than consumers would not be able to have the choice to drink un-softened water. Hard water problems are most likely to occur when water is heated. As a result, hard water causes few problems to the water supplying companies, especially when only cold water runs through their pipes. 5.2 Is softened water safe to drink? Softened water still contains all the natural minerals that we need. It is only deprived off its calcium and magnesium contents, and some sodium is added during the softening process. That is why in most cases, softened water is perfectly safe to drink. It is advisable that softened water contains only up to 300mg/L of sodium. In areas with very high hardness the softened water must not be used for the preparation of baby-milk, due to the high sodium content after the softening process has been carried out. 5.3 Can salt from softening installations enter drinking water? Salt does not have the opportunity to enter drinking water through softening installations. The only purpose of salt in a water softener is to regenerate the resin beads that take the hardness out of water. 5.4 How much sodium does one absorb from softened water? The sodium uptake through softened water depends on the hardness of the water. Averagely, less than 3% sodium uptake comes from drinking softened water. Estimates say that a person consumes about two to three teaspoons of salt a day, from various sources. Assuming a daily intake of five grams of sodium through food and the consumption of three quarts of water, the contribution of sodium (Na+) in the water from the home water softening process, is minimal compared to the total daily intake of many sodium-rich foods. 5.5 Will softening drinking water deprive it of essential minerals? Softening will not deprive water of its essential minerals. Softening only deprives drinking water of minerals that cause the water to be hard, such as calcium, magnesium and iron. 6. Softeners maintenance 6.1 When does a softener resin need replacement? When the water does not become soft enough, one should first consider problems with the salt that is used, or mechanical malfunctions of softener components. When these elements are not the cause of the unsatisfactory water softening, it may be time to replace the softener resin, or perhaps even the entire softener. Through experience we know that most softener resins and ion exchanger resins last about twenty to twenty-five years. 6.2 Does a softener brine tank need cleaning? Usually it is not necessary to clean out a brine tank, unless the salt product being used is high in water-insoluble matter, or there is a serious malfunction of some sort. If there is a build-up of insoluble matter in the resin, the reservoir should be cleaned out to prevent softener malfunction. 6.3 What is ‘meshing’ and why should we avoid it? When loosely compacted salt pellets or cube-style salt is used in a resin, it may form tiny crystals of evaporated salt, which are similar to table salt. These crystals may bond, creating a thick mass in the brine tank. This phenomenon, commonly known as ‘meshing’, may interrupt brine production. Brine production is the most important element for refreshing of the resin beads in a water softener. Without brine production, a water softener is not able produce soft water. 7. Softener operational questions 7.1 Can brine from softeners damage a septic tank? The Water Quality Association has performed studies on this subject. These studies have indicated that a properly placed septic tank that works adequately cannot be damaged by brine that is discharged from a water softener. And softened water can sometimes even help reduce the amount of detergents discharged into a septic tank. 7.2 Can a water softener be used with lead pipes? Lead pipe systems have to be replaced, before softened water can flow through them. Although lead pipe systems in hard water areas may not cause a problem, it is advisable to replace them anyway. When naturally or artificially softened water ends up in these lead pipe systems, it may cause the pickup of lead. 7.2 Can one measure water hardness inline? Yes, although the measurement system is mainly applied in industrial water softeners. 8. Softening in households 8.1 Can a water softener be taken along during moving? With modern water softeners, it is very possible to take them along during moving. Installation techniques involve quick fitting connections, similar to those used for laundry machines. All that has to be done is closing off the inlet and outlet valves of the softener and open up the bypass valve, allowing hard water to flow to the storage tank and household taps. After that the softener can be disconnected, moved to its new location and placed there. 8.2 Can waste from a water softener be discharged directly in the garden? As brine alters the osmotic pressure that plants rely upon to regulate water needs, direct discharge of either sodium or potassium chloride brine should be avoided. 8.3 Is softened water any help for dry skin conditions? There are cases to be noted, in which people with dry skin conditions have benefited from water softening, because soft water is kinder to the hair and skin.

What is Reverse Osmosis ?

What is Reverse Osmosis? Reverse Osmosis, commonly referred to as RO, is a process where you demineralize or deionize water by pushing it under pressure through a semi-permeable Reverse Osmosis Membrane. Osmosis To understand the purpose and process of Reverse Osmosis you must first understand the naturally occurring process of Osmosis . Osmosis is a naturally occurring phenomenon and one of the most important processes in nature. It is a process where a weaker saline solution will tend to migrate to a strong saline solution. Examples of osmosis are when plant roots absorb water from the soil and our kidneys absorb water from our blood. Below is a diagram which shows how osmosis works. A solution that is less concentrated will have a natural tendency to migrate to a solution with a higher concentration. For example, if you had a container full of water with a low salt concentration and another container full of water with a high salt concentration and they were separated by a semi-permeable membrane, then the water with the lower salt concentration would begin to migrate towards the water container with the higher salt concentration. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3156" alt="ROdiagram1" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram1-300x244.gif" width="300" height="244" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram1-64x52.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram1-120x97.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram1-300x244.gif 300w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane that will allow some atoms or molecules to pass but not others. A simple example is a screen door. It allows air molecules to pass through but not pests or anything larger than the holes in the screen door. Another example is Gore-tex clothing fabric that contains an extremely thin plastic film into which billions of small pores have been cut. The pores are big enough to let water vapor through, but small enough to prevent liquid water from passing. Reverse Osmosis is the process of Osmosis in reverse . Whereas Osmosis occurs naturally without energy required, to reverse the process of osmosis you need to apply energy to the more saline solution. A reverse osmosis membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that allows the passage of water molecules but not the majority of dissolved salts, organics, bacteria and pyrogens. However, you need to ‘push’ the water through the reverse osmosis membrane by applying pressure that is greater than the naturally occurring osmotic pressure in order to desalinate (demineralize or deionize) water in the process, allowing pure water through while holding back a majority of contaminants. Below is a diagram outlining the process of Reverse Osmosis. When pressure is applied to the concentrated solution, the water molecules are forced through the semi-permeable membrane and the contaminants are not allowed through. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3157" alt="ROdiagram2" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram2-300x241.gif" width="300" height="241" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram2-64x51.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram2-120x96.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram2-300x241.gif 300w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> How does Reverse Osmosis work? Reverse Osmosis works by using a high pressure pump to increase the pressure on the salt side of the RO and force the water across the semi-permeable RO membrane, leaving almost all (around 95% to 99%) of dissolved salts behind in the reject stream. The amount of pressure required depends on the salt concentration of the feed water. The more concentrated the feed water, the more pressure is required to overcome the osmotic pressure. The desalinated water that is demineralized or deionized, is called permeate (or product) water. The water stream that carries the concentrated contaminants that did not pass through the RO membrane is called the reject (or concentrate) stream. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3158" alt="ROdiagram3" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram3-300x78.png" width="300" height="78" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram3-64x17.png 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram3-120x31.png 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram3-300x78.png 300w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram3.png 500w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> As the feed water enters the RO membrane under pressure (enough pressure to overcome osmotic pressure) the water molecules pass through the semi-permeable membrane and the salts and other contaminants are not allowed to pass and are discharged through the reject stream (also known as the concentrate or brine stream), which goes to drain or can be fed back into the feed water supply in some circumstances to be recycled through the RO system to save water. The water that makes it through the RO membrane is called permeate or product water and usually has around 95% to 99% of the dissolved salts removed from it. It is important to understand that an RO system employs cross filtration rather than standard filtration where the contaminants are collected within the filter media. With cross filtration, the solution passes through the filter, or crosses the filter, with two outlets: the filtered water goes one way and the contaminated water goes another way. To avoid build up of contaminants, cross flow filtration allows water to sweep away contaminant build up and also allow enough turbulence to keep the membrane surface clean. What will Reverse Osmosis remove from water? Reverse Osmosis is capable of removing up to 99%+ of the dissolved salts (ions), particles, colloids, organics, bacteria and pyrogens from the feed water (although an RO system should not be relied upon to remove 100% of bacteria and viruses). An RO membrane rejects contaminants based on their size and charge. Any contaminant that has a molecular weight greater than 200 is likely rejected by a properly running RO system (for comparison a water molecule has a MW of 18). Likewise, the greater the ionic charge of the contaminant, the more likely it will be unable to pass through the RO membrane. For example, a sodium ion has only one charge (monovalent) and is not rejected by the RO membrane as well as calcium for example, which has two charges. Likewise, this is why an RO system does not remove gases such as CO2 very well because they are not highly ionized (charged) while in solution and have a very low molecular weight. Because an RO system does not remove gases, the permeate water can have a slightly lower than normal pH level depending on CO2 levels in the feed water as the CO2 is converted to carbonic acid. Reverse Osmosis is very effective in treating brackish, surface and ground water for both large and small flows applications. Some examples of industries that use RO water include pharmaceutical, boiler feed water, food and beverage, metal finishing and semiconductor manufacturing to name a few. Reverse Osmosis Performance & Design Calculations There are a handful of calculations that are used to judge the performance of an RO system and also for design considerations. An RO system has instrumentation that displays quality, flow, pressure and sometimes other data like temperature or hours of operation. In order to accurately measure the performance of an RO system you need the following operation parameters at a minimum: 1. Feed pressure 2. Permeate pressure 3. Concentrate pressure 4. Feed conductivity 5. Permeate conductivity 6. Feed flow 7. Permeate flow 8. Temperature Salt Rejection % This equation tells you how effective the RO membranes are removing contaminants. It does not tell you how each individual membrane is performing, but rather how the system overall on average is performing. A well-designed RO system with properly functioning RO membranes will reject 95% to 99% of most feed water contaminants (that are of a certain size and charge). You can determine effective the RO membranes are removing contaminants by using the following equation: The higher the salt rejection, the better the system is performing. A low salt rejection can mean that the membranes require cleaning or replacement. Salt Passage % This is simply the inverse of salt rejection described in the previous equation. This is the amount of salts expressed as a percentage that are passing through the RO system. The lower the salt passage, the better the system is performing. A high salt passage can mean that the membranes require cleaning or replacement. Recovery % Percent Recovery is the amount of water that is being ‘recovered’ as good permeate water. Another way to think of Percent Recovery is the amount of water that is not sent to drain as concentrate, but rather collected as permeate or product water. The higher the recovery % means that you are sending less water to drain as concentrate and saving more permeate water. However, if the recovery % is too high for the RO design then it can lead to larger problems due to scaling and fouling. The % Recovery for an RO system is established with the help of design software taking into consideration numerous factors such as feed water chemistry and RO pre-treatment before the RO system. Therefore, the proper % Recovery at which an RO should operate at depends on what it was designed for. By calculating the % Recovery you can quickly determine if the system is operating outside of the intended design. The calculation for % Recovery is below: For example, if the recovery rate is 75% then this means that for every 100 gallons of feed water that enter the RO system, you are recovering 75 gallons as usable permeate water and 25 gallons are going to drain as concentrate. Industrial RO systems typically run anywhere from 50% to 85% recovery depending the feed water characteristics and other design considerations. Concentration Factor The concentration factor is related to the RO system recovery and is an important equation for RO system design. The more water you recover as permeate (the higher the % recovery), the more concentrated salts and contaminants you collect in the concentrate stream. This can lead to higher potential for scaling on the surface of the RO membrane when the concentration factor is too high for the system design and feed water composition. The concept is no different than that of a boiler or cooling tower. They both have purified water exiting the system (steam) and end up leaving a concentrated solution behind. As the degree of concentration increases, the solubility limits may be exceeded and precipitate on the surface of the equipment as scale. For example, if your feed flow is 100 gpm and your permeate flow is 75 gpm, then the recovery is (75/100) x 100 = 75%. To find the concentration factor, the formula would be 1 ÷ (1-75%) = 4. A concentration factor of 4 means that the water going to the concentrate stream will be 4 times more concentrated than the feed water is. If the feed water in this example was 500 ppm, then the concentrate stream would be 500 x 4 = 2,000 ppm. Flux For example, you have the following: The RO system is producing 75 gallons per minute (gpm) of permeate. You have 3 RO vessels and each vessel holds 6 RO membranes. Therefore you have a total of 3 x 6 = 18 membranes. The type of membrane you have in the RO system is a Dow Filmtec BW30-365. This type of RO membrane (or element) has 365 square feet of surface area. To find the flux (Gfd): The flux is 16 Gfd. This means that 16 gallons of water is passed through each square foot of each RO membrane per day. This number could be good or bad depending on the type of feed water chemistry and system design. Below is a general rule of thumb for flux ranges for different source waters and can be better determined with the help of RO design software. If you had used Dow Filmtec LE-440i RO membranes in the above example, then the flux would have been 14. So it is important to factor in what type of membrane is used and to try and keep the type of membrane consistent throughout the system. Feed Water Source Gfd Sewage Effluent 5-10 Sea Water 8-12 Brackish Surface Water 10-14 Brackish Well Water 14-18 RO Permeate Water 20-30 Mass Balance A Mass Balance equation is used to help determine if your flow and quality instrumentation is reading properly or requires calibration. If your instrumentation is not reading correctly, then the performance data trending that you are collecting is useless. You will need to collect the following data from an RO system to perform a Mass Balance calculation: 1. Feed Flow (gpm) 2. Permeate Flow (gpm) 3. Concentrate Flow (gpm) 4. Feed Conductivity (µS) 5. Permeate Conductivity (µS) 6. Concentrate Conductivity (µS) The mass balance equation is: (Feed flow 1 x Feed Conductivity) = (Permeate Flow x Permeate Conductivity) + (Concentrate Flow*Concentrate Conductivity) 1 Feed Flow equals Permeate Flow + Concentrate Flow For example, if you collected the following data from an RO system: Permeate Flow 5 gpm Feed Conductivity 500 µS Permeate Conductivity 10 µS Concentrate Flow 2 gpm Concentrate Conductivity 1200 µS Then the Mass Balance Equation would be: (7 x 500) = (5 x 10) + (2*1200) 3,500 ≠ 2,450 Then find the difference (Difference / Sum) ∗ 100 ((3,500 – 2,450) / (3,500 + 2,450)) * 100 = 18% A difference of +/- 5% is ok. A difference of +/- 5% to 10% is generally adequate. A difference of > +/- 10% is unacceptable and calibration of the RO instrumentation is required to ensure that you are collecting useful data. In the example above, the RO mass balance equation falls out of range and requires attention. Understanding the difference between passes and stages in a Reverse Osmosis (RO) system The term stage and pass are often mistaken for the same thing in an RO system and can be confusing terminology for an RO operator. It is important to understand the difference between a 1 and 2 stage RO and a 1 and 2 pass RO. Difference between a 1 and 2 stage RO System In a one stage RO system, the feed water enters the RO system as one stream and exits the RO as either concentrate or permeate water. In a two-stage system the concentrate (or reject) from the first stage then becomes the feed water to the second stage. The permeate water is collected from the first stage is combined with permeate water from the second stage. Additional stages increase the recovery from the system. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3159" alt="ROdiagram4" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-300x295.gif" width="300" height="295" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-52x50.gif 52w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-64x63.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-66x66.gif 66w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-120x118.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-300x295.gif 300w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram4-500x492.gif 500w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> Array In a Reverse Osmosis System an array describes the physical arrangement of the pressure vessels in a 2 stage system. Pressure vessels contain RO membranes (usually from 1 to 6 RO membranes are in a pressure vessel). Each stage can have a certain amount of pressure vessels with RO membranes. The reject of each stage then becomes the feed stream for the next successive stage. The 2 stage RO system displayed on the previous page is a 2:1 array which means that the concentrate (or reject) of the first 2 RO vessels is fed to the next 1 vessel. RO System with Concentrate Recycle With an RO system that can’t be properly staged and the feed water chemistry allows for it, a concentrate recycle setup can be utilized where a portion of the concentrate stream is fed back to the feed water to the first stage to help increase the system recovery. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3160" alt="ROdiagram5" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram5-300x201.gif" width="300" height="201" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram5-64x43.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram5-120x80.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram5-300x201.gif 300w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram5-500x335.gif 500w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> Single Pass RO vs Double Pass RO Think of a pass as a stand alone RO system. With this in mind, the difference between a single pass RO system and a double pass RO system is that with a double pass RO, the permeate from the first pass becomes the feed water to the second pass (or second RO) which ends up producing a much higher quality permeate because it has essentially gone through two RO systems. Besides producing a much higher quality permeate, a double pass system also allows the opportunity to remove carbon dioxide gas from the permeate by injecting caustic between the first and second pass. C02 is undesirable when you have mixed bed ion exchange resin beds after the RO. By adding caustic after the first pass, you increase the pH of the first pass permeate water and convert C02 to bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonate (CO3-2) for better rejection by the RO membranes in the second pass. This can’t be done with a single pass RO because injecting caustic and forming carbonate (CO3-2) in the presence of cations such as calcium will cause scaling of the RO membranes. <img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3161" alt="ROdiagram6" src="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram6-300x260.gif" width="300" height="260" srcset="https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram6-64x56.gif 64w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram6-120x104.gif 120w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram6-300x260.gif 300w, https://atipure.com/store/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ROdiagram6-500x433.gif 500w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /> RO Pretreatment Proper pretreatment using both mechanical and chemical treatments is critical for an RO system to prevent fouling, scaling and costly premature RO membrane failure and frequent cleaning requirements. Below is a summary of common problems an RO system experiences due to lack of proper pretreatment. Fouling Fouling occurs when contaminants accumulate on the membrane surface effectively plugging the membrane. There are many contaminants in municipal feed water that are naked to the human eye and harmless for human consumption, but large enough to quickly foul (or plug) an RO system. Fouling typically occurs in the front end of an RO system and results in a higher pressure drop across the RO system and a lower permeate flow. This translates into higher operating costs and eventually the need to clean or replace the RO membranes. Fouling will take place eventually to some extent given the extremely fine pore size of an RO membrane no matter how effective your pretreatment and cleaning schedule is. However, by having proper pretreatment in place, you will minimize the need to address fouling related problems on a regular basis. Fouling can be caused by the following: 1. Particulate or colloidal mater (dirt, silt, clay, etc.) 2. Organics (humic/fulvic acids, etc) 3. Microorganisms (bacteria, etc). Bacteria present one of the most common fouling problems since RO membranes in use today cannot tolerate a disinfectant such as chlorine and therefore microorganisms are often able to thrive and multiply on the membrane surface. They may product biofilms that cover the membrane surface and result in heavy fouling. 4. Breakthrough of filter media upstream of the RO unit. GAC carbon beds and softener beds may develop an under drain leak and if there is not adequate post filtration in place the media can foul the RO system. By performing analytical tests, you can determine if the feed water to your RO has a high potential for fouling. To prevent fouling of an RO system, mechanical filtration methods are used. The most popular methods to prevent fouling are the use of multi-media filters (MMF) or microfiltration (MF). In some cases cartridge filtration will suffice. Scaling As certain dissolved (inorganic) compounds become more concentrated (remember discussion on concentration factor) then scaling can occur if these compounds exceed their solubility limits and precipitate on the membrane surface as scale. The results of scaling are a higher pressure drop across the system, higher salt passage (less salt rejection), low permeate flow and lower permeate water quality. An example of a common scale that tends to form on an RO membrane is calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ). Chemical Attack Modern thin film composite membranes are not tolerant to chlorine or chloramines. Oxidizers such as chlorine will ‘burn’ holes in the membrane pores and can cause irreparable damage. The result of chemical attack on an RO membrane is a higher permeate flow and a higher salt passage (poorer quality permeate water). This is why microorganism growth on RO membranes tends to foul RO membranes so easily since there is no biocide to prevent its growth. Mechanical Damage Part of the pretreatment scheme should be pre and post RO system plumbing and controls. If ‘hard starts’ occur mechanical damage to the membranes can occur. Likewise, if there is too much backpressure on the RO system then mechanical damage to the RO membranes can also occur. These can be addressed by using variable frequency drive motors to start high pressure pumps for RO systems and by installing check valve(s) and/or pressure relief valves to prevent excessive back pressure on the RO unit that can cause permanent membrane damage. Pretreatment Solutions Below are some pretreatment solutions for RO systems that can help minimize fouling, scaling and chemical attack. Multi Media Filtration (MMF) A Multi-Media Filter is used to help prevent fouling of an RO system. A Multi-Media Filter typically contains three layers of media consisting of anthracite coal, sand and garnet, with a supporting layer of gravel at the bottom. These are the medias of choice because of the differences in size and density. The larger (but lighter) anthracite coal will be on top and the heavier (but smaller) garnet will remain on the bottom. The filter media arrangement allows the largest dirt particles to be removed near the top of the media bed with the smaller dirt particles being retained deeper and deeper in the media. This allows the entire bed to act as a filter allowing much longer filter run times between backwash and more efficient particulate removal. A well-operated Multi-Media Filter can remove particulates down to 15-20 microns. A Multi-Media Filter that uses a coagulant addition (which induces tiny particles to join together to form particles large enough to be filtered) can remove particulates down to 5-10 microns. To put this in perspective, the width of a human hair is around 50 microns. A multi media filter is suggested when the Silt Density Index (SDI) value is greater than 3 or when the turbidity is greater than 0.2 NTU. There is no exact rule, but the above guidelines should be followed to prevent premature fouling of RO membranes. It is important to have a 5 micron cartridge filter placed directly after the MMF unit in the event that the under drains of the MMF fail. This will prevent the MMF media from damaging downstream pumps and fouling the RO system. Microfiltration (MF) Microfiltration (MF) is effective in removing colloidal and bacteria matter and has a pore size of only 0.1-10µm. Microfiltration is helpful in reducing the fouling potential for an RO unit. Membrane configuration can vary between manufacturers, but the “hollow fibre” type is the most commonly used. Typically, the water is pumped from the outside of the fibres, and the clean water is collected from the inside of the fibres. Microfiltration membranes used in potable water applications usually operate in “dead-end” flow. In dead-end flow, all of the water fed to the membrane is filtered through the membrane. A filter cake that must be periodically backwashed from the membrane surface forms. Recovery rates are normally greater than 90 percent on feed water sources which have fairly high quality and low turbidity feeds. Antiscalants and Scale Inhibitors Antiscalants and scale inhibitors, as their name suggests, are chemicals that can be added to feed water before an RO unit to help reduce the scaling potential of the feed water. Antiscalants and scale inhibitors increase the solubility limits of troublesome inorganic compounds. By increasing the solubility limits, you are able to concentrate the salts further than otherwise would be possible and therefore achieve a higher recovery rate and run at a higher concentration factor. Antiscalants and scale inhibitors work by interfering with scale formation and crystal growth. The choice of antiscalant or scale inhibitor to use and the correct dosage depends on the feed water chemistry and RO system design. Softening by ion exchange A water softener can be used to help prevent scaling in an RO system by exchanging scale forming ions with non scale forming ions. As with a MMF unit, it is important to have a 5 micron cartridge filter placed directly after the water softener in the event that the under drains of the softener fail. Sodium Bisulfite (SBS) injection By adding sodium bisulfite (SBS or SMBS), which is a reducer, to the water stream before an RO at the proper dose you can remove residual chlorine. Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) GAC is used for both removing organic constituents and residual disinfectants (such as chlorine and chloramines) from water. GAC media is made from coal, nutshells or wood. Activated carbon removes residual chlorine and chloramines by a chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons from the surface of the GAC to the residual chlorine or chloramines. The chlorine or chloramines ends up as a chloride ion that is no longer an oxidizer. The disadvantage of using a GAC before the RO unit is that the GAC will remove chlorine quickly at the very top of the GAC bed. This will leave the remainder of the GAC bed without any biocide to kill microorganisms. A GAC bed will absorb organics throughout the bed, which is potential food for bacteria, so eventually a GAC bed can become a breeding ground for bacteria growth which can pass easily to the RO membranes. Likewise, a GAC bed can produce very small carbon fines under some circumstances that have the potential to foul an RO. RO Data Trending and Normalization The RO membranes are the heart of the RO system and certain data points need to be collected to determine the health of the RO membranes. These data points include the system pressures, flows, quality and temperature. Water temperature is directly proportional to pressure. As the water temperature decreases it becomes more viscous and the RO permeate flow will drop as it requires more pressure to push the water through the membrane. Likewise, when the water temperature increases the RO permeate flow will increase. As a result, performance data for an RO system must be normalized so that flow variations are not interpreted as abnormal when no problem exists. The normalized flows, pressures and salt rejection should be calculated, graphed and compared to the baseline data (when the RO was commissioned or after the membranes were cleaned or replaced) to help troubleshoot any problems and also determine when to clean or inspect the membranes for damage. Data normalization helps display the true performance of the RO membranes. As a general rule of thumb, when the normalized change is +/- 15% from the baseline data then you need to take action. If you don’t follow this rule then RO membrane cleanings may not be very effective at brining the membranes back to near new performance. RO Membrane Cleaning RO membranes will inevitably require periodic cleaning, anywhere from 1 to 4 times a year depending on the feed water quality. As a general rule, if the normalized pressure drop or the normalized salt passage has increased by 15%, then it is time to clean the RO membranes. If the normalized permeate flow has decreased by 15% then it is also time to clean the RO membranes. You can either clean the RO membranes in place or have them removed from the RO system and cleaned off site by a service company that specializes in this service. It has been proven that offsite membrane cleaning is more effective at providing a better cleaning than onsite cleaning skids. RO membrane cleaning involves low and high pH cleaners to remove contaminants from the membrane. Scaling is addressed with low pH cleaners and organics, colloidal and biofouling are treated with a high pH cleaner. Cleaning RO membranes is not only about using the appropriate chemicals. There are many other factors involved such as flows, water temperature and quality, properly designed and sized cleaning skids and many other factors that an experienced service group must address in order to properly clean RO membranes. Summary Reverse Osmosis is an effective and proven technology to produce water that is suitable for many industrial applications that require demineralized or deionized water. Further post treatment after the RO system such as mixed bed deionization can increase the quality of the RO permeate and make it suitable for the most demanding applications. Proper pretreatment and monitoring of an RO system is crucial to preventing costly repairs and unscheduled maintenance. With the correct system design, maintenance program, and experienced service support, your RO system should provide many years of high purity water.

When water is referred to as ‘hard’ this simply means, that it contains more minerals than ordinary water. These are especially the minerals calcium and magnesium. The degree of hardness of the water increases, when more calcium and magnesium dissolves. Magnesium and calcium are positively charged ions. Because of their presence, other positively charged ions will dissolve less easily in hard water than in water that does not contain calcium and magnesium. This is the cause of the fact that soap doesn’t really dissolve in hard water.

Air is the Earth ‘s atmosphere . It is the clear gas in which living things live and breathe . It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has no color or smell . It has mass and weight . It is a matter as it has mass and weight. Air creates atmosphere pressure . There is no air in the vacuum and cosmos . Air is a mixture of 78.03% nitrogen , 20.99% oxygen , 0.94% argon , 0.03% carbon dioxide , 0.01% hydrogen , 0.00123% Neon , 0.0004% helium , 0.00005% krypton and 0.000006% xenon . <div class="fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column fusion-builder-column-3 fusion_builder_column_1_1 1_1 fusion-flex-column fusion-flex-align-self-flex-start fusion-column-no-min-height" style="--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:100%;--awb-flex-grow:0;--awb-flex-shrink:0;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:0px;--awb-margin-bottom-large:0px;--awb-spacing-left-large:0px;--awb-width-medium:100%;--awb-flex-grow-medium:;--awb-flex-shrink-medium:;--awb-spacing-right-medium:0px;--awb-spacing-left-medium:0px;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-flex-grow-small:;--awb-flex-shrink-small:;--awb-spacing-right-small:0px;--awb-spacing-left-small:0px;"> [1] There are also small amounts of other things. Animals and humans need the oxygen in the air to live. In the human body , the lungs give oxygen to the blood , and give back carbon dioxide to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off oxygen that humans can breathe again. Wind is moving air. Air can be polluted by some gases (such as ozone and carbon monoxide ), smoke , and ash . Some believe that this pollution may be one of the causes of global warming , by causing the “ greenhouse effect “.

Is Ontario’s air quality getting better or worse?

Ontario’s air quality has improved steadily since 1988. We have good air quality approximately 90 per cent of the time.

What is the purpose of smog alerts?

The purpose of these alerts is to inform people with breathing difficulties to avoid unnecessary exposure to smog, to inform major pollution sources that they should consider, if possible, reducing their emissions, and to solicit everyone’s help in lessening the problem by curtailing activities that produce smog.

Where is the best air quality and lowest incidences of smog in the province?

Generally, air quality improves as you travel northward and eastward across the province, however, the formation and transport of smog is strongly dependent on meteorological conditions. Summer smog episodes in Ontario are often a part of a regional weather condition that prevails over much of northeastern North America. Elevated levels of ozone and fine particulate matter are typically due to weather patterns that affect the lower Great Lakes region. Such weather patterns are invariably associated with slow-moving high pressure cells across the region and result in the long-range transport of smog pollutants from neighbouring U.S. industrial and urbanized states during the flow of warm air from the southwest to the northeast. When looking for a place to live, it is important to keep local sources in mind. For instance, it is best to stay away from areas with a lot of industry and major roadways. The impacts of emissions from vehicles on a highway or any roadway depend on a number of factors, including: the distance from the highway; traffic volume; traffic congestion (i.e. free flowing or congested); and predominant wind directions. Generally speaking, air concentration impacts from a highway decrease significantly with distance from the roadway. Typically, moving 100 metres from the edge of the road can result in a decrease in pollutant concentrations of 60-80 per cent. In addition, trees can filter the air, so a well-treed area can have better air quality than one without trees.

Smog is a general term used to describe a mixture of air pollutants, dominated by ground-level ozone and fine particulate matter. Ozone is created when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds combine in the presence of sunlight – making ozone primarily a summer phenomenon, occuring mostly in southern Ontario. Fine particulate matter is primarily formed from chemical reactions in the atmosphere and through fuel combustion. It can elevate smog levels during all months of the year.

Where does smog come from?

The contaminants that create smog are released during the combustion of fossil fuels in our vehicles, power plants, factory boilers and homes. They are also released by industrial processes, the evaporation of liquid fuels and the use of solvents and other volatile products such as oil-based paints. Smog-causing contaminants are released during forest fires, and emitted by natural sources such as: trees, bogs, and volcanic activity. Most of Ontario’s smog problems are caused by a combination of local emissions and pollutants carried by the wind from pollution sources in the United States. More than half of our smog problem comes from south of the border.

How is smog forecast?

The Ministry of the Environment meteorologists combine real-time information on pollutant levels with data on weather patterns, topographical conditions and emission sources to predict impending smog problems. The data are obtained by a network of 40 air monitoring stations across the province. Over the last four years the ministry has invested more than $6 million in upgrading Ontario’s air monitoring network, making it the most modern and best equipped in North America.

What is the Air Quality Index?

The Air Quality Index (AQI) is an indicator of our air quality, based on pollutants that have adverse effects on human health and the environment. The pollutants are ozone, fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and total reduced sulphur compounds. If the AQI falls below 32, the air quality is considered good or very good. An AQI reading between 32 and 49 indicates moderate air quality, and an AQI reading from 50 to 99 indicates poor air quality. A reading over 99 indicates very poor air quality.

How is the AQI calculated?

The AQI is a calculated index that provides Ontarians with air quality information in near real-time. This index has its own concentration breakpoints for the descriptive categories (i.e. very good, good, moderate, poor, and very poor). It may be difficult to compare AQI calculations from jurisdiction to jurisdiction across North America because they are not standardized and the formulas involved are complex. The relationship between AQI and the individual pollutant concentrations are shown below. For each category, a linear relationship is assumed between index values and the concentrations of the sub-index pollutant. At the end of each hour, the concentration of each pollutant measured at individual AQI sites is converted into a number ranging from zero upwards using a common scale or index. The calculated number for each pollutant is referred to as a sub-index. At a given site, the highest sub-index becomes the AQI reading for that hour at that location. Ozone (O 3 ) AQI Category <div class="fusion-layout-column fusion_builder_column fusion-builder-column-4 fusion_builder_column_1_1 1_1 fusion-flex-column fusion-flex-align-self-flex-start fusion-column-no-min-height" style="--awb-bg-size:cover;--awb-width-large:100%;--awb-flex-grow:0;--awb-flex-shrink:0;--awb-margin-top-large:0px;--awb-spacing-right-large:0px;--awb-margin-bottom-large:0px;--awb-spacing-left-large:0px;--awb-width-medium:100%;--awb-flex-grow-medium:;--awb-flex-shrink-medium:;--awb-spacing-right-medium:0px;--awb-spacing-left-medium:0px;--awb-width-small:100%;--awb-flex-grow-small:;--awb-flex-shrink-small:;--awb-spacing-right-small:0px;--awb-spacing-left-small:0px;"> [O 3 ] (ppb) AQI Equation Very Good 0 to 23 0.6520 × [O 3 ] + 0 Good 24 to 50 0.5800 × [O 3 ] + 2.154 Moderate 51 to 80 0.5900 × [O 3 ] + 2.1 Poor 81 to 149 0.7200 × [O 3 ] – 8.37 Very Poor >149 0.7200 × [O 3 ] – 8.37 Fine Particulate Matter (PM 2.5 ) AQI Category [PM 2.5 ] 3-hour average (µg/m 3 ) AQI Equation Very Good <12 1.364 × [PM 2.5 ] + 0 Good 12 to 22 1.500 × [PM 2.5 ] – 2.000 Moderate 23 to 45 0.7727 × [PM 2.5 ] + 14.228 Poor 46 to 90 1.113 × [PM 2.5 ] – 1.298 Very Poor >90 1.100 × [PM 2.5 ] + 0 Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ) AQI Category [SO 2 ] (ppb) AQI Equation Very Good 0 to 79 0.1899 × [SO 2 ] + 0 Good 80 to 169 0.1685 × [SO 2 ] + 2.520 Moderate 170 to 250 0.2125 × [SO 2 ] – 4.125 Poor 251 to 1999 0.0280 × [SO 2 ] + 42.97 Very Poor >1999 0.0500 × [SO 2 ] + 0 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ) AQI Category [NO 2 ] (ppb) AQI Equation Very Good 0 to 50 0.300 × [NO 2 ] + 0 Good 51 to 110 0.2543 × [NO 2 ] + 3.00 Moderate 111 to 200 0.191 × [NO 2 ] + 10.79 Poor 201 to 524 0.1517 × [NO 2 ] + 19.5 Very Poor >524 0.1903 × [NO 2 ] + 0 Carbon Monoxide (CO) AQI Category [CO] (ppm) AQI Equation Very Good 0 to 12.49 1.2500 × [CO] + 0 Good 12.50 to 22.49 1.6700 × [CO] – 5.67 Moderate 22.50 to 30.49 2.4300 × [CO] – 23.86 Poor 30.50 to 49.49 2.7200 × [CO] – 34.39 Very Poor >49.49 2.0000 × [CO] + 0 Total Reduced Sulphur (TRS) AQI Category [TRS] (ppb) AQI Equation Very Good 0 to 5.49 3.0000 × [TRS] + 0 Good 5.50 to 10.49 3.7500 × [TRS] – 6.50 Moderate 10.50 to 27.49 1.0625 × [TRS] + 20.31 Poor 27.50 to 999.49 0.05046 × [TRS] + 48.59 Very Poor >999.49 0.1000 × [TRS] + 0 Notes: parts per billion (ppb) micrograms per cubic metre (µg/m 3 ) parts per million (ppm)

How have we improved our smog forecasts?

As of May 1, 2000, as part of its new Air Quality Ontario initiative, the ministry provided earlier, more effective notification of poor air quality than ever before. When air quality and weather conditions are likely to produce smog, the ministry takes steps to inform the public, and warn those most vulnerable to the health impacts of poor air quality. It provides two levels of alert: A Smog Watch is issued when there is a 50 per cent chance that elevated smog levels are forecast to occur within the next three days. A Smog Advisory is issued when there is a strong likelihood that elevated smog levels are forecast to occur within the next 24 hours, or it can be issued immediately if widespread, poor AQI readings occur, and weather conditions conducive to the persistence of such levels are expected to continue for several hours. When the weather changes, resulting in cleaner air, the ministry issues an advisory termination notice. In May 2001, the ministry adopted the policy of issuing a smog advisory immediately if widespread, poor AQI readings occur, and weather conditions conducive to the persistence of such levels are expected to continue for several hours. As of August 2002, the ministry added fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) to its AQI. This new sub-index provides Ontarians with more information on air quality so they can make informed decisions to protect their health and help improve the air we all share.

Is it possible to have poor air quality even if a smog watch or smog advisory has not been called?

Yes. Since smog is closely tied to the weather, it is impossible to be 100 per cent accurate 100 per cent of the time. For example, a weather system could arrive in Ontario before the predicted time, or could change direction. So poor air quality could occur without a smog advisory being called. It is also possible that poor air quality will not materialize even though a smog advisory has been called.

Where can I obtain hourly pollutant concentration data?

The Ontario Ministry of the Environment’s (MOE) Air Quality Index web site provides users with access to hourly pollutant concentration data from MOE’s ambient sites.The data output, which includes station and pollutant information, is available in both .HTML and/or .CSV format(s) which may be imported directly into Excel or any other spreadsheet application. Currently, online data is available from 2000 to 2012. The tool may be accessed at: http://www.airqualityontario.com/history/

What is the effect of the SHARP PM2.5 monitor on reported PM2.5concentrations?

The new SHARP monitor is able to detect additional components of PM 2.5 , especially during cold weather. As a result of this improvement in monitoring technology, there is potential of reporting higher PM 2.5 concentrations during the winter months. This is a reflection of more accurate measurements and does not necessarily mean that Ontario’s air quality is changing. The air is the same; only the monitoring method has changed.

Why did Ontario upgrade the PM2.5 monitoring network?

Ontario strives to be a leader in air quality reporting and continues to benefit from one of the most comprehensive air monitoring systems in North America. The network upgrade was funded by Environment Canada under a national initiative to standardize PM 2.5 monitoring methods across Canada and ensure data comparability. The objective is to have all jurisdictions operating federally approved PM 2.5 monitors by 2013.

How can I get air quality information?

On this website: http://www.airqualityontario.com . This site provides Air Quality Index (AQI) readings, ambient air pollution data and air quality forecasts, as well as information on actions that can be taken when a smog alert is issued. You can also subscribe to the ministry’s smog alert network , and receive an automatic email whenever the ministry issues a smog watch or smog advisory. By telephone: You can get AQI readings from recorded telephone messages by dialing 1-800-387-7768 (toll-free) or 416-246-0411 in Toronto. To obtain AQI readings in French, dial 1-800-221-8852. Via radio and television: The MOE has worked for many years with news media across Ontario to inform the public about smog conditions. This will continue to be a crucial method for communicating information about smog and actions that can be taken to reduce smog-causing emissions. This smog season you can expect your local radio and television stations to add smog watches and smog advisories to their weather forecasts.

How is PM2.5 monitored in Ontario?

In 2002, Ontario was the first province in Canada to introduce monitoring of PM 2.5 to the Air Quality Index. The ministry reported real-time PM 2.5 with the Thermo Scientific TEOM 1400AB/SES until December 31, 2012. Continuous PM 2.5 monitoring technologies have evolved dramatically over the last decade. The network is now reporting real-time PM 2.5 concentrations using Thermo Scientific SHARP 5030, an approved Class III Federal Equivalent Method designated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 2009. Ontario evaluated the SHARP monitor starting in 2009, and adopted this method in 2012 in concurrence with Environment Canada. In 2013, the SHARP monitors were deployed across Ontario’s AQI network.

What should I do if a smog alert is called?

Here are some actions you can take to help protect the environment and your own health: At home: Conserve electricity year-round by adjusting the heat or air conditioner and turning off lights you are not using. Avoid letting your car, or any other engine, idle for long periods. Reduce your use of gasoline-powered equipment. Avoid mowing the lawn when air quality is poor. Don’t use oil-based products such as paints, solvents or cleaners if you can avoid them. They contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which contribute to smog. Avoid or reduce strenuous physical outdoor activities when smog levels are high, especially during the late afternoon. Do not exert yourself outdoors. If possible, stay indoors in a cool, air-conditioned environment. Get engine tune-ups and car maintenance checks as advised by the car manufacturer’s maintenance schedule. Limit the amount of wood you burn in your fireplace or woodstove. When burning wood, use only the dry, seasoned variety. At work: If possible, take public transit, or walk to work. If you use a car, don’t travel alone; encourage and facilitate car pooling. Avoid traffic congestion. Consider teleconferencing, instead of traveling to meetings. As always, consult your doctor for specific medical advice on how to cope with poor air quality.

Where can I obtain information on smog and my health?

For information on smog and associated health impacts, please refer to our Smog and Your Health Fact Sheets, located at http://www.airqualityontario.com/press/publications.php .

What is a smog alert response plan?

When smog levels reach critical levels, steps should be taken immediately to protect the most vulnerable members of society and reduce emissions that could worsen local air quality. A smog alert response plan is a written protocol of actions to be taken by an organization, government agency, company or municipality when poor air quality is forecast. Such a plan should include a mechanism for informing residents or employees of the potential health threat, as well as specific actions that can be taken to reduce the risk. More information on developing a smog alert response plan and additional suggestions for what you can do to combat smog is available in the ministry publication – Smog Alert Response: A Municipal Guide to Action .

How many smog advisories were issued in previous years?

The ministry monitors air pollution levels and issues smog advisories when there is a strong likelihood that widespread elevated and persistent smog levels are expected. Here is a summary of smog advisories issued for Ontario by the ministry since 2003: Smog advisories issued for Ontario by the ministry since 2003 Year Number of Advisories Total Number of Days 2003 7 19 2004 8 20 2005 15 53 2006 6 17 2007 13 39 2008 8 17 2009 3 5 2010 3 12 2011 5 9 2012 12 30 2013 1 2 2014* 0 0 * as of January 16, 2014.

What is Ontario doing to improve and protect air quality?

Ontario is committed to doing its part to reduce emissions and improve air quality. The Air Quality Ontario initiative is one component of a comprehensive strategy to protect the environment and safeguard public health. Other components of the strategy include: Drive Clean – a program that reduces nitrogen oxides (NO X ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) through emissions testing of motor vehicles and enforcement through the Smog Patrol; Ontario Regulation 194/05 – Industry Emissions: Nitrogen Oxides (NO X ) and Sulphur Dioxides (SO 2 ) – this regulation establishes industry sector emission caps starting in 2006 and defines how these caps will be reduced in future years (2007, 2010 and 2015); Ontario Regulation 419/05: Air Pollution – Local Air Quality – sets air quality standards for toxic substances to protect local communities; Ontario Regulation 397/01: Emissions Trading – caps nitrogen oxides (NO X ) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) emissions from the electricity sector; Ontario Regulation 127/01: Airborne Contaminant Discharge – Monitoring and Reporting – focuses public attention on environmental practices, thus compelling high emitters to clean up their act, and OnAir: Ontario’s online registry for reporting to the public; Developing cleaner sources of energy to replace coal-fired generation by early 2009, a mandate to create renewable energy, encouraging energy efficiency and conservation programs, including use of co-generation; Stage 1 Vapour Recovery (Ontario Regulation 455/94) requires gasoline facility operators to install, maintain and operate gasoline vapour recovery systems, and Gasoline Volatility (Ontario Regulation 271/91 as amended by Ontario Regulation 45/97) which limits gasoline vapour pressure during the summer; Environmental Training for Dry Cleaners (Ontario Regulation 323/94); Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) Guideline A-5 for New and Modified Combustion Turbines; and, CCME Guideline A-9 for New Commercial/Industrial Boilers and Heaters.

Particulate matter (PM) consists of airborne particles in solid or liquid form. PM may be classified as primary or secondary, depending on the compounds and processes involved during its formation. Primary PM is emitted at the emissions source in particle form, for example, the smokestack of an electrical power plant or a recently tilled field subject to wind erosion. Secondary PM formation results from a series of chemical and physical reactions involving different precursor gases, such as sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides, and ammonia reacting to form sulphate, nitrate and ammonium particulate matter. The size of PM particles largely determines the extent of environmental and health damage caused. For this reason, Environment Canada identifies different sizes of PM: Total Particulate Matter (TPM) – airborne particulate matter with an upper size limit of approximately 100 micro metre (µm) in aerodynamic equivalent diameter Particulate Matter <10 microns (PM 10 ) – airborne particulate matter with a mass median diameter less than 10 µm Particulate Matter < 2.5 microns (PM 2.5 ) – airborne particulate matter with a mass median diameter less than 2.5 µm Numerous studies have linked PM to aggravated cardiac and respiratory diseases such as asthma, bronchitis and emphysema and to various forms of heart disease. PM can also have adverse effects on vegetation and structures, and contributes to visibility deterioration and regional haze.

Guidance for Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) in Residential Indoor Air

Background Fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) is a general term for all small particles found in air measuring equal to or less than 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter. It is a complex mixture whose constituents vary in size, shape, density, surface area, and chemical composition (Health Canada and Environment Canada 1999; US EPA 2009). In 1987, Health Canada published Exposure Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Quality, which set maximum acceptable long- and short-term exposure ranges for PM 2.5 in homes. These guidelines are being revised to reflect the most up-to-date science on the health effects and residential exposure for PM 2.5 . Exposure Indoor PM 2.5 is composed of indoor-generated PM 2.5 from sources such as smoking, cooking, and cleaning, and PM 2.5 that has infiltrated from the outside. In studies conducted by Health Canada in different Canadian cities, average indoor PM 2.5 concentrations were less than 15 µg/m 3 in homes without smokers, and less than 35 µg/m 3 in homes with smokers (Health Canada 2010). In general, indoor PM 2.5 levels were lower than outdoor concentrations measured directly outside the home, except in homes with smokers. Health Effects Outdoor PM 2.5 , as measured at area monitoring stations, has been shown in a large number of studies to be strongly associated with cardiovascular and respiratory mortality and morbidity endpoints (Health Canada and Environment Canada 1999; WHO 2005; US EPA 2009). There is no recognized threshold of health effects for outdoor PM 2.5 regardless of where exposure occurs (i.e., indoors or outdoors), and there is evidence that adverse health effects occur at current levels of exposure. A much smaller number of studies have investigated the relationship between indoor PM 2.5 and health. There is some evidence for a relationship between indoor PM 2.5 levels and declines in lung function and increases in exhaled nitric oxide, a marker of airway inflammation, in asthmatic children (Koenig et al. 2003; Delfino et al. 2004; Koenig et al. 2005; Trenga et al. 2006). However, changes in exhaled nitric oxide were more strongly associated with outdoor PM 2.5 than indoor PM 2.5 (Koenig et al. 2003; Koenig et al. 2005; Allen et al. 2008). Associations between indoor PM 2.5 and subtle changes in markers of cardiovascular disease have also been observed in older adults (Delfino et al. 2008; Liu et al. 2009; Allen et al. 2011). Guidance The acceptable long- and short-term exposure ranges established in the 1987 exposure guidelines should be rescinded and replaced with this new guidance focusing on indoor source control to minimize long-term exposure to PM 2.5 indoors. Indoor levels of PM 2.5 should be kept as low as possible, as there is no apparent threshold for the health effects of PM 2.5 . It is impossible to entirely eliminate PM 2.5 indoors, as among its sources are essential and everyday activities, such as cooking and cleaning, as well as infiltration from outdoor sources, over which residents have little or no control. However, any reduction in PM 2.5 would be expected to result in health benefits, especially for sensitive individuals, such as those with underlying health conditions, the elderly or children. The focus should be on reducing indoor sources over which homeowners and residents have some degree of control. The main recommended strategies to reduce exposure to the major sources of indoor-generated PM 2.5 are: Cessation of smoking Use of a stove top fan while cooking Other actions to reduce indoor PM 2.5 levels include ensuring there is adequate ventilation, especially when doing activities that may generate PM 2.5 . The potential benefits of ventilation, however, may be reduced or eliminated, if outdoor PM 2.5 levels are high. There is also evidence that some in-duct air filters or portable air cleaners with filters may help reduce indoor PM 2.5 levels. Filter efficiency, however, is highly variable among products and the effectiveness of filters as a method to reduce indoor PM 2.5 will depend on the product used and how it is maintained. A discussion of how to properly select and maintain air filters and portable air cleaners is beyond the scope of this document. The above recommendations are consistent with Health Canada guidance to homeowners to focus on identifying the potential sources of contaminants in the home, and then on improving air quality through source control, improved ventilation and other remedial measures such as air filtration. Identification of potential sources is, in most situations, more informative and cost-effective than indoor air quality testing and comparison of measured values to quantitative guideline values. Quantitative residential indoor air guidelines may be of use to public health and building professionals for the interpretation of results of indoor air quality studies and for the development of performance standards. With respect to indoor PM 2.5 , Health Canada is not proposing a specific maximum exposure limit, but is recommending that indoor PM 2.5 , at a minimum, be lower than PM 2.5 outside the home. Having an indoor level that is greater than the outdoor level indicates a strong indoor source(s) of PM 2.5 that needs to be addressed. The ratio of indoor to residential outdoor PM 2.5 levels can therefore serve to highlight situations where strategies to reduce indoor-generated PM 2.5 are necessary and will be most effective. The recommended PM 2.5 reduction strategies can be employed in all homes. However, for those homes with a ratio of indoor to outdoor PM 2.5 levels greater than one, targeted efforts to identify and remove indoor sources of PM 2.5 are a priority.

Air Cleaner and Air Purifier?

Air Cleaner and Air Purifier? When looking for a way to clean the air inside a home, it’s easy to become confused about terminology. For example, many people think that air purifiers are different than air cleaners. In reality, they are the same. The terms air purifier and air cleaner are completely interchangeable. By understanding what air purifiers are and how they work, it’s easier to zero in on the right one. Indoor Air Pollutants and Air Purifiers Before looking for an indoor air purifier, or air cleaner, it helps to have a basic understanding of the types of air pollutants that are often found in homes. This knowledge makes it easier to find air cleaners and air purifiers that effectively clean the air. With a basic understanding of indoor air pollutants, it is easier to make sense of the descriptions of today’s most popular air cleaners. Volatile Organic Compounds Volatile organic compounds, or VOCs, are gases or vapors that are emitted by many everyday household items. They may be emitted by things like new carpeting, paints, adhesives, varnishes, glues, and disinfectants. To determine whether a household product contains VOCs, look for ingredients like formaldehyde, toluene, chloride, ethylene, and benzene. Some air cleaners are designed to filter VOCs from the air, but others aren’t capable of doing so. If this is an important factor, look for air purifiers with filters that pull VOCs out of the air. Odors and Gases Some air cleaners can largely eliminate odors and gases from the air in a home. They do so with activated carbon filters, which are included on just about every air purifier and air cleaner that’s on the market today. These filters use a process called adsorption to force these gases and odors to become attached using a chemical reaction. Common gases and odors include aerosols, tobacco smokes, cooking odors, indoor pesticides, kitty litter, and toxins. Airborne Particles Most people buy air purifiers and air cleaners to eliminate airborne particles from their homes. Airborne particles include things like dust mites, pet dander, pollen, mold, plant spores, and fungi. These types of particles exacerbate conditions like asthma and allergies, so it is smart to eliminate from the air inside a home. HEPA filters are considered to be the most effective in eliminating these particles, which can vary in size considerably but are all microscopic. The size of the average airborne particle is measured in microns. One micron equals 1/25,000 of an inch. To be classified as a HEPA filter, a filter must be able to pull 99.97 percent of airborne particles that measure as small as 0.3 microns. Particle Type Size Smoke 0.003 microns to 0.04 microns Bacteria 0.3 microns to three microns Fungi 0.5 microns to five microns Pet dander 0.3 microns to 100 microns Mold Two microns to 20 microns Pollen 10 microns to 100 microns Dust mite 10 microns to 40 microns Plant spore 10 microns to 70 microns Microorganisms Some air purifiers are designed to pull microorganisms from the air. In some cases, air cleaners also kill microorganisms using UV rays and other techniques. Bacteria, viruses, pathogens, and antigens are all microorganisms. Mold falls into this category as well. Types of Air Filters Whether it’s called an air purifier or an air cleaner, the most important components of this type of machine are its air filters. Indeed, most air purifiers and air cleaners contain at least two air filters. Some use three or four different air filters. One of the easiest ways to find the right air purifier is by looking for models that have specific types of filters. To do that, learn about the main characteristics of today’s most popular air filters. Activated Carbon Filters This type of filter isn’t generally used alone. Instead, it’s often used in conjunction with HEPA filters and other air filters. Activated carbon uses a chemical reaction called adsorption to pull odors, gases, and vapors from the air. The carbon that is found in these filters is treated with oxygen, which forces millions of small openings to develop. With an increased surface area, an activated carbon filter can pull odors, gases, and vapors from the air for a very long time. Some activated carbon filters can also pull VOCs from the air. They contain an extra chemical, which is known as a chemisorbent, which traps them in the filter or makes them harmless. Ion and Ozone Generators Although they aren’t technically filters, ion and ozone generators are designed to do the same thing: remove impurities from the air. However, instead of filtering them out, they just make them cling to surfaces around a room. These generators also often release ozone as a byproduct. This can be problematic because ozone is considered to be a lung irritant. Electrostatic Precipitators The same process that is used with ozone and ion generators is used with electrostatic precipitators. The primary difference is that electrostatic precipitators actually filter impurities out of the air too. However, they can also product ozone as a byproduct, so air purifiers that use this technology may not be suitable for people with respiratory conditions. The impurities are collected on plates that can be washed, so there’s no need to buy replacement filters. Charged Media Filters The description of these filters is almost identical to those of electrostatic precipitators. The main difference is that these filters actually use filters. They don’t use plates. As a result, it is necessary to change the filter from time to time. One of the best things about these filters is that they can trap extremely microscopic particles. Like electrostatic precipitators and ion and ozone generators, however, they also produce ozone. Pre-Filters If large particles are allowed to make contact with sensitive filters, air purifiers and air cleaners won’t work as effectively or as efficiently. That is why the vast majority of these machines have pre-filters as well. A pre-filter’s job is to pull larger particles from the air to keep them from being passed along to HEPA filters and other types of filters. They are typically made out of woven nylon or foam. In most cases, they can be cleaned again and again. Antibacterial and Germicidal Filters The only way to eliminate a huge percentage of germs and bacteria from the air is by purchasing an air purifier that includes antibacterial or germicidal filters. Sometimes, this technology involves the use of UV rays. Other times, HEPA filters are treated with specialized agents that kill bacteria, germs, and other microorganisms. HEPA Filters To successfully pull at least 99.97 percent of particles from the air, it’s crucial to buy an air purifier that uses HEPA filters. High-efficiency particulate air filters, or HEPA filters, were originally designed to remove radioactive dust particles from the air. However, all HEPA filters are not created equal. The higher the area is, the more effective a HEPA filter is. Look at the square footage of the filter before buying an air purifier that uses HEPA technology. Types of Air Cleaners There are three main air cleaners, or air purifiers, available: whole-house air cleaners, whole-house air filters, and portable air purifiers. Whole-House Air Cleaners Whole-house air cleaners are installed directly onto a home’s heating and cooling system. However, this is not a job for an average homeowner. A professional must install this type of system. Also, a home has to have forced-air ducts in order to make one of these systems work. It should also be noted that whole-house air purifiers often need to be wired directly into a home’s electrical system. Whole-House Air Filters An alternative way to clean a lot of the air in a home at one time is by using a whole-house air filter, which is designed to replace a standard furnace filter. This option is somewhat effective, but it doesn’t eliminate nearly as many impurities as other types of air cleaners. Portable Air Purifiers Although one portable air purifier is only going to clean the air in one room, it is going to do so in a very effective way. There are many affordable room air purifiers out there, so many people place on in each room. Pros and Cons of Different Air Purifiers Type of Air Purifier or Air Cleaner Pros Cons Whole-house air cleaner Filters air throughout the entire home Many options available Expensive Has to be professionally installed May have to be wired into home’s electrical system May not be as efficient as portable models Whole-house air filter Convenient Easy to use Inexpensive Not very effective at purifying the air in a home Filters must be compatible with furnace Portable air purifier Lightweight Compact May include casters or handles Huge variety of options available Options for every budget Only cleans the air in a single room Quality varies a lot from one model to the next Air Purifier Features Without understanding the main features of today’s air purifiers and air cleaners, finding the right option is extremely difficult. Energy Efficiency The energy efficiency of an air purifier can be gauged by considering how many watts of power it uses. If wattage information is unavailable, simply multiply the number of volts by the number of amps. Options range from air cleaners that operate on around 50 watts to models that run on 200 watts or more when on the highest setting. ACH The air changes per hour, or ACH, of an air purifier is an important characteristic. It reflects the number of times in an hour that an air cleaner exchanges the air in a room. The ACH is usually listed next to the room size. Stick with air purifiers with ACH ratings of four or higher because they exchange the air at least four times per hour. CADR Consider an air purifier’s clean air delivery rate, or CADR, before buying it as well. This rating is assigned by the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers, or AHAM. The higher the CADR is, the more effective an air cleaner is at purifying the air. Filter Replacements Prior to purchasing an air cleaner, check to see how its filter or filters need to be changed. Also find out the typical cost to replace each filter. Without doing this research, it’s possible to spend hundreds of extra dollars per year on filters for an air purifier, which can ruin what looked like an otherwise good deal. Conclusion Air purifiers and air cleaners are the same, but there are many options available within this category. To find the right air cleaner or air purifier, learn more about how they work and about the types of air filters that they use.

Public health experts estimate that air pollution is responsible for 16,000 premature deaths in this country each year; at this rate, forty Canadians die from air pollution-related causes each and every day. Indoor air quality (IAQ) : People working indoors often experience symptoms such as headaches, shortness of breath, coughing or nausea just to mention a few. However, it is rarely possible to prove that these symptoms are related to a particular indoor air contaminant. In fact, building occupants are simultaneously exposed to a wide range of indoor air contaminants. Causes of IAQ problems: Indoor environment – inadequate temperature, humidity, lighting, excessive noise Indoor air contaminants – chemicals, dusts, moulds or fungi, bacteria, gases, vapours, odours Insufficient outdoor air intake Our lung health— and our health in general— depends on clean air. Indoor and outdoor air pollution can cause health problems, especially for people who have lung diseases. Outdoor air quality is an important health concern. Air pollution continues to be a serious threat to the quality of the air we breathe. Air pollution can irritate, inflame, or destroy lung tissue. It weakens the lung’s defenses against contaminants. Even low levels of air pollution can cause health problems.

Symptoms that may be caused by outdoor air pollution

Irritation in your eyes, nose and throat Wheezing, coughing and breathing difficulties Tightness in your chest Worsening of existing lung disease ( asthma , COPD , etc.) and heart problems Some people can notice symptoms from air pollution right away. For example, a person with asthma might find it hard to breathe after 10 minutes outside on a smoggy day. For other people, it may take longer to notice the health effects of outdoor air pollution. Even if you can’t feel a problem right away, it’s still possible that exposure to air pollution is hurting your health over the long term.

Who is most at risk of getting sick from outdoor air pollution?

children seniors people with lung disease, including asthma and COPD people with heart disease people with suppressed immune systems Even healthy people can have breathing problems on days when there’s air pollution.

How does air pollution enter the body?

Your body has a natural cleaning and repair system that helps keep larger particles from hurting your lungs. There is a thin layer of sticky mucous and thousands of tiny hairs (cilia) lining the insides of the breathing tubes in your lungs. If you breathe in germs or particles, the mucous traps the little bits of dirt, and the cilia move together like a wave to push the dirt-filled mucous out of your lungs. Then you cough, spit up, or swallow the mucous, and the dirt is out of your lungs. The problem with some air pollution is that particles are too tiny to be trapped and cleaned out by your mucous and cilia. The tiny pollution particles drift all the way to the tips of your lungs (alveoli) and can cause permanent lung damage. Indoor air contaminants: Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), tobacco smoke, perfume, body odours — from building occupants. Dust, fibreglass, asbestos, gases, including formaldehyde — from building materials. Toxic vapours, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) — from workplace cleansers, solvents, pesticides, disinfectants, glues. Gases, vapours, odours — off-gas emissions from furniture, carpets, and paints. Dust mites — from carpets, fabric, foam chair cushions. Microbial contaminants, fungi, moulds, bacteria, — from damp areas, stagnant water and condensate pans. Ozone — from photocopiers, electric motors, electrostatic air cleaners. Results: dryness and irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and skin, headache, fatigue, shortness of breath, hypersensitivity and allergies, sinus congestion, coughing and sneezing, dizziness, and/or nausea.

Keep your home clean and dust-free. Don’t let anyone smoke in your home. Minimize the use of potential contaminants by finding substitutes or eliminating them altogether. Clean (or report) any spills or leaks. If working in a contaminant-producing area, ensure contaminant sources are contained (e.g. work under fume hoods, clean up spills, keep doors and windows closed). Take your shoes off when you enter the house. The soil outside your home can contain a number of substances you do not want inside Indoor air quality is a vital component of your home’s heating and cooling system. After all, you’ve probably heard about the impact air quality can have on your health, especially on those who suffer from allergies. And who hasn’t experienced the physical discomfort of breathing stale of stagnant air? But better indoor air quality also has another benefit. It makes your home a more comfortable, welcome place. You feel warmer in the winter. And cooler in the summer. Which means you won’t be cranking up the furnace of A.C. as much. In fact, you may be able to save up to eighteen percent on your energy bills, season after season. An air Filtration System goes a long way towards cleaning air you breathe by minimizing particles in the air. Your lungs will appreciate the cleaner air, of course. And so will your heating and cooling system. An air Filtration system can keep furnace and central air systems operating at peak efficiency, which could cut down on repair bills later on. Individuals can take action at the local level to reduce energy use at home, on the road, at work, and at play. They can also take advantage of a number of tips (with interesting facts) and other resources to help them reduce the amount of air pollution that they create. Community action is also important. Organizing outreach activities to promote greater community involvement is a very effective way of achieving progress. Communities, along with their municipal governments, can become involved in planning more sustainable forms of landuse and transportation as well as developing community social marketing programs to promote necessary changes. Industry can also do its part, by adopting pollution prevention measures, pollution control technology, improving energy efficiency, switching to renewable sources, and using cleaner fuels. Many companies are improving their green image to attract growing numbers of environmentally conscious consumers.

Clean, safe air is essential in protecting the health of our people and our communities. As part of its commitment to clean up Ontario’s air, the McGuinty government has posted two new regulations that require industry to reduce their emissions of harmful air pollutants. Both of these regulations achieve commitments made in the government’s Five-Point Action Plan for Cleaner Air , announced on June 21, 2004. Regulation 194/05 Industry Emissions – Nitrogen Oxides and Sulphur Dioxide addresses points one and two of the five-point action plan: Applying tough nitrogen oxides (NO x ) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) limits — two of the most significant smog-causing pollutants — to more industrial sectors than ever before. Making the NO x and SO 2 limits even stricter in future years. Regulation 419/05 Air Pollution – Local Air Quality with better provincial standards for harmful air pollutants addresses points three to five of the plan: Setting new air standards, in some cases for the first time, for many harmful pollutants, including carcinogens and toxins that could pose a threat to human health. Achieving a better picture of industrial emissions through updated technology. Introducing a faster, risk-based approach to implementing new air standards.

Cost of air pollution

According to Science magazine, exposure to air pollution affects “death rates, hospitalizations and medical visits, complications of asthma and bronchitis, days of work lost, restricted-activity days, and a variety of measures of lung damage.” A World Health Organization study of France, Switzerland and Austria found that their health costs due to traffic pollution amounted to approximately 1.7 percent of GDP, dramatically more than the cost of treating injuries from traffic accidents. Source: CNN.com “Traffic pollution ‘kills thousands every year’ “ September 1, 2000 In Canada, the province of Ontario estimates that air pollution costs its 12 million residents at least $1 billion annually in hospital admissions, emergency room visits and worker absenteeism. Source: Ontario Medical Association, “The Illness Costs of Air Pollution Ontario” June 2000 And the World Bank reports that in China – home to some of the most polluted air in the world – the deaths and illnesses of urban residents due to air pollution cost an estimated 5 percent of GDP.

Ways to Reduce Air Pollution

We make choices every day that can help reduce air pollution. Below are a few ideas that you can take to help clean our air. At Home Conserve energy – turn off appliances and lights when you leave the room. Recycle paper, plastic, glass bottles, cardboard, and aluminum cans. (This conserves energy and reduces production emissions.) Keep woodstoves and fireplaces well maintained. You should also consider replacing old wood stoves with EPA-certified models. Plant deciduous trees in locations around your home to provide shade in the summer, but to allow light in the winter. Buy green electricity-produced by low-or even zero-pollution facilities. Connect your outdoor lights to a timer or use solar lighting. Wash clothes with warm or cold water instead of hot. Lower the thermostat on your water heater to 120F. Use low-VOC or water-based paints, stains, finishes, and paint strippers. Test your home for radon-a dangerous, radioactive gas that is odorless and tasteless. If the test shows elevated levels of radon, the problem can be fixed cost effectively. Choose not to smoke in your home, especially if you have children. If you or your visitors must smoke, then smoke outside. Buy Smart Buy ENERGY STAR products, including energy efficient lighting and appliances. They are environmentally friendly products. For more information, Choose efficient, low-polluting models of vehicles. Choose products that have less packaging and are reusable. Shop with a canvas bag instead of using paper and plastic bags. Buy rechargeable batteries for devices used frequently. Drive Wise Plan your trips. Save gasoline and reduce air pollution. Keep tires properly inflated and aligned. In the summertime, fill gas tank during cooler evening hours to cut down on evaporation. Avoid spilling gas and don’t “top off” the tank. Replace gas tank cap tightly. Avoid waiting in long drive-thru lines, for example, at fast-food restaurants or banks. Park your car and go in. When possible, use public transportation, walk, or ride a bike. Get regular engine tune ups and car maintenance checks (especially for the spark plugs). Use an energy-conserving (EC) grade motor oil. Ask your employer to consider flexible work schedules or telecommuting. Report smoking vehicles to your local air agency. Join a carpool or vanpool to get to work. For Your Health Check daily air quality forecasts, which tell how clean or polluted your air is, and the associated health concerns. Remove indoor asthma triggers from your home and avoid outdoor triggers in order to effectively control your asthma. Visit www.epa.gov/asthma to learn more about asthma triggers and ways to avoid them. Minimize your sun exposure. Wear sun block and UV protection sunglasses. To find out about current forecasts of UV where you live, go to www.epa.gov/sunwise/uvindex.html .

Water is the best of all things.

Pindar (c. 522-438 B.C.), Olympian Odes The human body is 70% water, the brain is 85% water, blood is 90% water… the human liver, one of our most vital organs is 96% water! It’s a logical assumption that the quality of the water we drink will have a very significant effect on our overall health. Hydration Tips Drink at least eight 8-ounce servings of water each day. The more active you are, the more water you need to replenish lost fluids. Don’t wait until you’re thirsty to drink water. By the time you feel thirsty, you have probably already lost two or more cups of your total body water composition. Drink plenty of water throughout the day. Convenience is a must, so carry a bottle of water with you as you commute to work, run errands or enjoy a day at the beach. While at work, keep a bottle of water on your desk, or visit the office water cooler and take a water break rather than a coffee break. Don’t substitute beverages with alcohol or caffeine for water. Caffeine and alcohol act as diuretic beverages and can cause you to lose water through increased urination. Once you start exercising, drink water throughout your workout. Keep a bottle of water with you and take frequent water breaks. Don’t underestimate the amount of fluids lost from perspiration. Following a workout, you need to drink two cups of water for each pound lost. Start and end your day with water. Your body loses water while you sleep, so drink a serving before bed and again when you wake up. Common colds and the flu frequently lead to dehydration. Keep a large bottle of water next to your bed so you can sip it throughout the day without having to get up. Cool water – not carbonated beverages or sports drinks – is the best fluid for keeping hydrated when it’s warm outside. Cool water is absorbed much more quickly than warm fluids and may help to cool off your overheated body. If you’re going to be away from home or outdoors, make sure you keep a bottle of water close by. Make sure your children drink enough water. . Children need water to balance their intake of other beverages – especially during activities. Packing bottled water in a child’s lunch instead of juice or regular soda can also help prevent childhood obesity.

How much soap or detergent should be used in softened water?

When first using softened water for household cleaning chores, it is best to use as little soap as possible. If necessary, the homeowner can gradually increase the quantity to produce the desired results. The habit of using far too much soap is not easily broken. Therefore, anyone contacting the customer should stress the coffee measure as being adequate rather than the cup or more that may have been necessary prior to the installation of a water softener.

Can softened water be used for a steam iron?

Neither hard nor soft water should be used with a steam iron. Demineralized or distilled water alone is acceptable for use over a period of time. Remember, that the softening of water does not remove the minerals.

What general procedures should be used with household dishwashers?

In any case, the instructions of the dishwasher manufacturer should be followed. However, these may be supplemented with the following general considerations. Avoid the use of sudsing soaps or synthetic detergents as the suds which develop can “muffle” the spray action used in most dishwashers to provide scrubbing action. A number of washing compounds are on the market which have been specifically formulated for dishwashers. Included are such brand names as Calgonite and Electro-Sol. These materials do not generally contain any soap – they depend upon the presence of greases and oils on the dishes to produce a cleaning solution. Even with the use of soft water, spotting of dishes is sometimes reported. In some cases, the cause may be traced to the use of too much washing compound or the use of the wrong material, as outlined above. In other cases, the dishwasher is loaded too heavily and improper cleaning occurs. Another common cause of spotting is too rapid drying. Ideally, the dishes should first be allowed to drain completely in a humid atmosphere so that the water with its minerals runs off, rather than evaporates. In some cases, the water temperature is too high and the water evaporates rather than drains. In other cases, the dishwasher lid opens at the end of the cycle and allows cool air to contact the utensils. This, too, results in rapid evaporation. Depending upon the construction of the dishwasher, it may be possible to adjust one or both of these factors to improve the results significantly.

How can iron stains be removed from fabrics?

Iron stains can be removed from most washable fabrics with oxalic acid, provided certain precautions are taken. Oxalic acid can be obtained at most drug stores. A solution of the oxalic acid may be made up by simply dissolving the crystals in water. The solubility of the acid is only about 10% so, it cannot be made too strong. The solution should be prepared in an enamelled or plastic container, never in a bare metal pail. A small amount of the solution should be tried on the inside of a hem or other inconspicuous location as the acid may bleach certain dyes. If, it is apparent that no bleaching has occurred, the entire garment may be repeatedly dipped in the solution. The dipping should continue until the iron stains are gone. Allowing the garment to soak in the acid solution is not recommended. After the stains have disappeared, the garment should be thoroughly rinsed in several changes of fresh water. To be sure that any remaining acid has been neutralized, the garment should be immediately laundered in the normal manner with the regular amount of soap. The alkalinity in the soap will eliminate the last traces of acidity. The acid solution may be poured down the drain but it should be followed with a thorough flushing with fresh water.

How can the sodium content of a softened water be determined in terms of milligrams of sodium?

1. First, determine the sodium content of the natural water. Multiply the water’s sodium content in grains per gallon expressed as calcium carbonate, by 7.866. This will give you the sodium content of the water in milligrams per litre of water. 2. Next determine the additional sodium content of water as a result of ion exchange softening. Here multiply the total hardness of the water in grains per gallon, expressed as calcium carbonate, by 7.866. 3. A simple addition of the results of both steps 1 & 2 will give the sodium content of the softened water in milligrams of sodium per litre. One litre (slightly more than a quart) is commonly accepted as normal water consumption. Actually, the amount of sodium present in softened water is small when compared to the sodium present in foods.

Is the sodium in softened water harmful to people on restrictive salt diets?

Much depends on the strictness of the diet itself. Where the patient is on an extremely restrictive diet, he should drink neither hard nor softened water. Under these conditions, he should have demineralized water, distilled water or water known to be free of sodium for drinking and for the cooking of his foods. Such patients are commonly hospitalized. In establishing a salt-free diet for patients, physicians should not overlook the fact that even hard water may contain appreciable amounts of sodium. To determine the amount a complete analysis of the water is necessary.

How can you calculate the amount of salt concentration in a septic tank?

If the liquid capacity of the tank is known, multiply the figure by 8.33 to determine the amount of water in pounds. If the liquid capacity is unknown, multiply the capacity in cubic feet by .80 (approximately 20% of the chamber will be filled with air at all times). Now multiply this figure by 62.33 to obtain the pounds of water in the tank. Compare the end figure (the total pounds of water) with the number of pounds of salt in the projected softener regeneration dosage. The pounds of salt should not exceed one percent of total amount of water in pounds in the tank.

Does a water softener have any harmful effect on a septic tank?

The backwash and brining effluents from a softener can be discharged into a septic tank. The latter should, however, be properly installed and of adequate size to ensure satisfactory results. Proper sizing of the septic tank is highly important. While many states recommend units with a minimum of a 500 gallon capacity, even smaller units may provide adequate liquid capacity in relation to the amount of salts discharged by the softener. Many public health authorities recognize that softener regeneration wastes can be safely discharged into septic tanks. The Public Health Service in a “Manual of Septic Tank Practice” writes: “Waste brines from household water softener units have no adverse effect on the action of the septic tank but, may cause a slight shortening of the life of a disposal field installed in a structured clay-type soil.” From this, it is evident that the type of soil in which the disposal field is situated must be taken into consideration. High concentrations of sodium salts deposited in certain types of soil over a period of time would result in loss of permeability. When this occurs, the soil cannot absorb and transmit the waste water. As a result, the absorption capacity of the drain field gradually decreases. On the other hand, the calcium and magnesium ions discharged by the softener may tend to open up the soil, reversing the clogging action of the sodium salts. To date, there are no reports on file of the failure of a distribution field to absorb the sodium salts due to softener regeneration wastes. In the event a serious doubt exists regarding the effect of the sodium wastes on the distribution field, the brine could be discharged into a dry well. Generally, a dry well (a hole filled with course gravel) will serve for many years. However, the use of a dry well should be necessary only in extremely few instances. There is some advantage in the use of fully automatic softeners where the discharge into the brine tank may be a problem. These softeners can be set to recharge frequently but, with smaller amounts of salt. Fully automatic softeners use from 40 to 80 gallons of water per recharging. With the operation requiring about one hour, the water flow rate is low. Further, the process is normally set to occur between midnight and 5:00 a.m., a time when little or no water is being used in the house. Under these conditions, a softener places far less burden on the capacity of the septic tank than do such water-using appliances as automatic dishwashers, washing machines or toilets, etc.

Will soft water produce clearer ice cubes?

Actually, removing calcium and magnesium from the water has little effect on the quality of ice prepared in the home. Here again, the reason is that softening the water does not reduce the total mineral concentration. For example, to the extent that a softener removes sediment, iron and manganese from water, this would help to produce a least cleaner ice. Filters, of course, can be helpful in removing iron, turbidity, tastes and odours from water used for ice-making. The use of polyphosphates is an economical method of treating water used in typical restaurant ice-making units. The polyphosphates keep the minerals in the water dispersed and in this way minimize the cloudy appearance of ice cubes. If fed in proper concentrations, polyphosphates also control scale formation and corrosion in the ice cube machine. Approximately 5 ppm are recommended for scale prevention and 10 ppm for both scale prevention and corrosion control.

Q&A | Aqua Technologies Inc. | Air and Water Purification

軟水中的鈉會導致水面上出現斑點行政人員2020-12-02T20:29:44-05:00

軟水中的鈉會導致水面上出現斑點

你可能會想知道，為什麼軟水器在去除鈣、鎂等礦物質的同時，卻不能降低總溶解固體（TDS）含量。.

這是因為軟水器利用了離子。交換流程代替含鈉離子的硬質礦物。.

由於鈉離子與鈣離子和鎂離子交換，水的總溶解固體（TDS）含量不會直接受到影響。每去除一個鈣離子或鎂離子，就會加入一個鈉離子。水中礦物質含量越高，軟化過程中交換的鈉越多。軟化後水的鈉含量完全取決於水的初始硬度。.

軟化水對於清潔和沐浴當然更好，而且延長家電的使用壽命例如你的洗衣機和熱水器。然而，你看到的軟水斑點實際上可能是鈉斑點。.

乾淨的餐具上的水分蒸發後，或洗完車後，可能會留下粉狀的鈉殘留物。.

好消息是，鈉漬很容易用毛巾擦掉。但皂垢和水垢就沒那麼容易擦掉了。此外，用手徹底擦乾汽車或餐具，而不是讓它們自然風乾，也能避免鈉漬的產生。.

冬季保養軟水器行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:50-05:00

冬季保養軟水器

冬季如何保養您的軟水器—您需要了解的內容

來源：WQA

您的軟水器或過濾器需要冬季保養嗎？如有需要，冬季保養都包含哪些內容？這取決於具體情況…

如果您將軟水器或過濾器放置在有人居住的房屋的地下室，則無需擔心冬季維護問題。但如果您有以下任何一種情況，則需要對您的系統進行冬季維護：

安裝在未加熱車庫中的設備
冬天不用的度假屋
你離開家，展開一段漫長的冬季假期

在所有這些情況下，採取預防措施以確保軟水器在冰點以下的溫度下得到保護是明智之舉。管道凍結可能導致管道爆裂，從而對您的房屋和水處理設備造成重大損失。.

讓我們來看一些有用的建議。.

隔熱和額外供暖

對於計劃在冬季繼續使用軟水器的人來說，可以採取一些簡單的措施來確保軟水器在寒冷天氣中不會結冰。.

如果你住在氣候溫和的地區，冬季氣溫不會特別低，那麼給管道和水箱做保溫就足以保護你的供水系統過冬了。你可以在任何一家家居建材商店買到管道保溫材料。給水管安裝電熱帶或電熱電纜也是不錯的選擇。.

對於軟水器儲罐，有些房主會在儲罐周圍建造一個保溫箱。您也可以購買管道保溫材料，或用保溫毯包裹儲槽。甚至還有專為軟水器儲槽設計的保溫套。.

由於鹽分飽和，你的鹽水箱只有在氣溫降至零度以下的極寒氣候下才有可能結冰。.

如果您全年都在使用軟水器，最重要的是保持其溫度足夠高以防止結冰，因此在車庫裡放置一個空間加熱器會有所幫助。.

記住，只需將溫度保持在華氏32度以上即可，使用電暖器時務必始終按照製造商的說明採取安全預防措施。僅在確定必要時才開啟電暖器。.

流動的水也能防止管道結冰。如果您只外出幾天，可以打開水龍頭，讓水慢慢流過，保持管道內的水流。雖然這並非萬無一失，但有時確實可以防止管道完全凍結和爆裂。.

軟水器的排水和斷開連接

如果您不打算在冬季使用軟水器，並且您家中的暖氣也會在冬季關閉，那麼您應該按照特定的步驟斷開、排空和存放您的系統。.

建議您排空水箱。這樣可以確保系統中不會殘留任何可能結冰並造成損壞的水。您需要將軟水器置於再生循環中，並等待直到看到系統將水反沖洗到排水管中。.

此時，如果您的軟水機配有手動旁通閥，應將其置於旁通位置，以切斷軟水機的供水。這樣可以隔離並保護您的系統，使其與建築物的其他供水系統隔離。.

將裝置從旁通閥上拆下，然後從水箱上拆下閥門。立管露出後，使用足夠長的 3/8 英吋至 1/2 英吋塑膠軟管連接立管底部和下部分配器。此時建議從介質箱中虹吸出水。.

虹吸過程較慢，可確保水箱中的水全部排出。虹吸管停止出水後，讓水箱靜置 5 到 10 分鐘。這段時間可以讓水完全沉澱到濾材箱底部。此時，您可以嘗試虹吸剩餘的沉澱水。.

大部分積水應該從鹽水箱中舀出，但剩下的溶液由於含鹽量高，不應該結冰。.

請查閱使用手冊以取得有關如何徹底排空水箱的詳細說明，或致電水處理專業人員尋求協助。.

接下來，拔掉軟水器的插頭或關閉電源開關。.

鹽水箱可以放在寒冷的地方，但軟水箱可能需要完全取出並存放在較溫暖的地方。.

還有疑問？請諮詢水權專家！

清澈的水是乾淨的嗎？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:50-05:00

清澈的水是乾淨的嗎？

以下CNN報導指出，清澈的水並不總是乾淨的水的標誌。.

http://www.cnn.com/2017/11/09/health/cdc-water-contamination-reports/index.html

水垢沉積的原因是什麼？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

水垢沉積的原因是什麼？

如果你的水質偏軟，即硬度礦物質含量低，通常不會有水垢問題。但是，如果你家的水質偏硬（大多數人都是如此），而且未經處理，就會在水龍頭等處看到碳酸鈣沉積。那麼，水垢的形成原因是什麼呢？

當水中鈣離子濃度過飽和時，鈣離子無法繼續溶解，會被擠出水面，與碳酸氫根離子結合形成方解石狀的碳酸鈣。鈣離子過飽和的主要原因有二：

溫度升高，最明顯的表現就是水壺和加熱元件上出現水垢。.
pH值升高通常是由於碳酸揮發成二氧化碳（CO2）導致壓力下降造成的（想想打開可樂瓶時「嘶嘶」一聲的聲音）。酸度降低會導致pH值迅速升高。你可能已經注意到飲水機附近有冷水結垢。.

我看到一些廣告宣傳「無需加鹽」的水處理劑。它們不用鹽是怎麼運作的？凱文2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

我看到一些廣告宣傳「無需加鹽」的水處理劑。它們不用鹽是怎麼運作的？

1. 許多經銷商會宣傳無需鹽水的軟水器。任何品牌的軟水器都可以不用鹽運作。這是透過使用氯化鉀這種鹽替代品來實現的。氯化鉀的價格通常是普通食鹽（氯化鈉）的兩倍，而且在某些地區可能很難買到。此外，使用鹽替代品時，建議將控制閥上的鹽濃度設定增加約 10 倍。這是因為鹽替代品提供樹脂珠所需的負離子效率不如普通食鹽。.

2. 有些公司提供催化過濾器和/或磁性或防垢裝置來「軟化」水，這些裝置不使用鹽，也不使用任何其他東西來再生其產品。. 買家當心！如果真有技術能取代樹脂基水處理劑，那人人都得賣了。反正我一定會買。那些鹽袋可真沉！
如果您現在使用的是軟水器，那麼換用價格過高的「除垢」產品後，您一定會非常不滿意。.
多年來，許多嘗試過的人都跟我說過類似的話。.

更多詳情，我推薦您閱讀這位退休化學家撰寫的網頁。. http://www.chem1.com/CQ/
還有這個，, http://www.uswatersystems.com/blog/2010/12/no-sal…
還有這個，, http://ths.gardenweb.com/forums/load/plumbing/msg…
請先做好功課，不要輕易把大筆錢浪費在聽起來好得令人難以置信的事情上。.

另一位顧客寫道/問道：

我曾考慮過換用無鹽水處理系統。您對這類設備有什麼看法？ www.nuvoh2o.com 他們聲稱每年只需更換兩次濾芯，幾乎無需維護？

***
我的看法是它們沒用……它們既不能軟化水質，也不能去除水中的錳或鐵。.

他們的「防垢」工藝效果非常有限。任何享受過真正「水質處理」水的人，如果改用這種價格過高的方法，都會感到失望。.

你不會在他們的網站上找到那些「客戶評價」。.

而濾芯其實就是碳過濾器，因為濾材無法承受供水中的氯，所以必須先去除氯。.

大多數經銷商使用裝有 1 立方英尺活性碳的全尺寸罐，而不是“濾芯”，以獲得更好的流速，並延長活性碳的更換週期（根據應用情況，每 1-5 年更換一次）。.

什麼是NSF認證？凱文2014-09-21T16:20:13-05:00

什麼是NSF認證？

每天，數以百萬計的人們理所當然地認為食品、飲用水和消費品的安全無虞。為什麼？因為三個字母：NSF。 NSF認證是確保您使用的產品符合嚴格的公共衛生保護標準的關鍵。.

選擇經 NSF 認證的產品，意味著該公司符合 NSF 制定的嚴格標準和流程。從全面的產品測試和材料分析，到突擊工廠檢查，產品開發的每個環節都經過嚴格評估，方可獲得我們的認證。.

最重要的是，NSF認證並非一次性事件，而是包括對生產設施的定期現場檢查和對產品的定期複測，以確保產品持續符合維持認證所需的各項高標準。若產品因任何原因未能符合一項或多項認證標準，NSF將採取強制措施保護您的權益，包括產品召回、發佈公告或取消認證。.

獲得 NSF 認證的產品被稱為“NSF 認證”或“NSF 列名”，並顯示相應的 NSF 認證標誌，以表明它們已經過當今最受尊敬的獨立產品測試機構之一的測試。.

什麼是軟水機？凱文2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

什麼是軟水機？

1. 硬水

1.1 什麼是硬水？

當水被稱為「硬水」時，這僅僅意味著它比普通水含有更多的礦物質，尤其是鈣和鎂。水的硬度隨著礦物質含量的增加而增加。鈣和鎂溶解。.
鎂和鈣是帶正電荷的離子。由於它們的存在，其他帶正電荷的離子在硬水中的溶解度會比在不含鈣和鎂的水中低。.
這就是肥皂在硬水中不易溶解的原因。.

1.2 哪些產業重視水的硬度？

在許多工業應用中，例如飲用水製備、啤酒廠和汽水廠，以及冷卻水和鍋爐給水，水的硬度都非常重要。.

2. 水軟化

2.1 什麼是軟化水？

當水中含有大量鈣和鎂時，就稱為硬水。硬水容易堵塞管道，並且會影響肥皂和清潔劑在水中的溶解。.
軟化水是一種去除導致水質變硬的離子的技術，在大多數情況下是鈣離子和鎂離子。. 鐵軟化過程中也可能去除離子。.
軟化水的最佳方法是使用軟水機並將其直接連接到供水系統。.

2.2 什麼是軟水機？

軟水器是一種用於軟化水的設備，它通過去除導致水變硬的礦物質來實現這一目的。.

2.3 為什麼要進行水軟化處理？

水軟化是一個重要的過程，因為在過程中可以降低家庭和公司用水的硬度。.
水質過硬會導致管道堵塞，肥皂也難以溶解。軟化水可以避免這些負面影響。.
硬水會導致家庭供水系統中水垢沉積的風險更高。水垢堆積會堵塞管道，降低熱水鍋爐和水箱的效率，從而使家庭熱水成本增加約 15% 至 20%。.
水垢的另一個負面影響是它會對家用機械（如洗衣機）造成損害。.
水軟化可以延長家用電器（例如洗衣機）和管道的使用壽命。它還有助於提高太陽能加熱系統、空調機組和許多其他用水設備的運作效率和使用壽命。.

2.4 軟水器有什麼作用？

軟水器是一種專門用於去除帶正電荷的離子的離子交換器。.
軟水器主要去除鈣（Ca）²⁺）和鎂（Mg）²⁺離子。鈣和鎂通常被稱為‘硬度礦物’。.
軟化器有時甚至可以用來去除水中的鐵。軟化裝置能夠去除每公升水中高達五毫克（5 mg/L）的溶解鐵。.
軟水器可分為全自動、半自動和手動三種操作方式。每種軟水器都以其在需要再生之前能夠去除的硬度量來衡量性能。.

軟水器會在其處理罐內收集硬度礦物質，並定期將其沖洗到排水管中。.
離子交換器常用於水軟化。當使用離子交換器軟化水時，它會用其他離子（例如磷酸鹽、鎂離子等）取代水中的鈣離子和鎂離子。鈉或者鉀. 將交換離子以鈉鹽和鉀鹽（NaCl 和 KCl）的形式加入離子交換器儲存槽。.

2.5 軟水機能用多久？

一台好的軟水機可以使用很多年。 1980年代生產的軟水機可能現在還能用，除了偶爾加鹽之外，許多都不需要維修。.

3. 軟化鹽

3.1 市面上銷售的軟水機的鹽有哪些種類？

用於軟化水的鹽一般分為三種：
岩鹽
太陽鹽
蒸發鹽

岩鹽是一種天然存在於地下的礦物。它是透過傳統採礦方法從地下鹽礦床中提取的。它含有98%至99%的氯化鈉。其水不溶性約為0.5-1.5%，主要成分為硫酸鈣。硫酸鈣是其最重要的成分。.
太陽鹽是天然產品，主要透過海水蒸發製得。它含有85%氯化鈉，水不溶性低於0.03%。太陽鹽通常以晶體形式出售，有時也以顆粒形式出售。.
蒸發鹽是透過開採地下溶解鹽礦床獲得的。然後利用天然氣或煤炭提供的能量將水分蒸發掉。蒸發鹽中氯化鈉的含量在99.6%至99.991%之間。.

3.2 軟水器應該使用岩鹽、蒸發鹽還是太陽鹽？

岩鹽含有大量不溶於水的物質。因此，使用岩鹽時，軟水池需要更頻繁地清洗。岩鹽比蒸發鹽和太陽能鹽便宜，但清洗軟水池可能會耗費您大量的時間和精力。.

太陽能鹽比蒸發鹽含有更多不溶於水的物質。選擇使用哪種鹽時，應考慮用鹽量、軟水器清洗頻率以及軟水器的設計。如果用鹽量不大，可以交替使用這兩種產品。.
如果用鹽量過大，使用太陽能鹽時，不溶性鹽的累積速度會更快。此外，儲鹽罐需要更頻繁地清洗。在這種情況下，建議使用蒸發鹽。.

3.3 在軟水器中混合不同種類的鹽有害嗎？

通常情況下，在軟水機中混合使用不同的軟水鹽並無害處，但有些軟水機是專為特定的軟水產品設計的。如果使用其他軟水產品，這些軟水機將無法正常運作。.
不建議將蒸發鹽與岩鹽混合使用，因為這可能會堵塞軟水器儲鹽罐。建議您在添加另一種鹽之前，先讓軟水器中的一種鹽完全排空，以免出現任何問題。.

3.4 軟水器多久加一次鹽？

軟水器再生過程中通常需要在儲水箱中添加鹽。軟水器再生次數越多，需要添加鹽分的頻率就越高。.
通常情況下，軟水器每月檢查一次。為確保軟水產量達標，鹽位應始終保持至少半滿。.

3.5 為什麼有時加鹽後水質並沒有變軟？

鹽在軟水器中開始發揮作用之前，需要在儲液罐中停留一段時間，因為鹽溶解緩慢。如果在儲液罐中加鹽後立即啟動再生程序，軟水器可能無法正常運作。.
如果水沒有軟化，也可能表示軟水器故障，或所使用的鹽有問題。.

4. 降低成本

4.1 軟水機多少錢？

軟水機的效率各不相同，因此價格也會有所差異。市面上有定時軟水機和水錶控制軟水機。水錶控制軟水機每磅鹽能產生最軟的水。.
有些軟水器使用電力，但有些較新的軟水器則使用水力。軟水器的成本很大程度上取決於軟水器的類型和所使用的能源類型，也取決於需要軟化的水的硬度和用水量。當水質硬度很高且用水量大時，軟化成本就會增加。.

一般來說，軟水器的成本每天在 $ 0.20 到 $ 0.40 之間。.
通常情況下，軟水機的成本遠低於使用軟水所帶來的好處和成本節省。.

4.2 軟水機運作成本是多少？

運作成本只是鹽的成本。這大概是每個家庭成員每月每人花費 $ 1.95 左右。.

5. 軟化飲用水

5.1 生產水的企業總是生產軟化水嗎？

雖然自來水生產企業有機會生產軟化水，但他們並非總是會這樣做。自來水生產企業只需在其水淨化系統中添加一台軟水機，即可低成本地生產軟化水。.
但這樣一來，消費者就無法選擇飲用未經軟化的水了。.
硬水問題最容易在水加熱時出現。因此，硬水很少給供水公司帶來問題，尤其是在管道中隻流過冷水的情況下。.

5.2 軟化水可以安全飲用嗎？

軟化水仍然含有我們所需的所有天然礦物質。它只是去除了鈣和鎂，並在軟化過程中添加了少量鈉。因此，在大多數情況下，軟化水完全可以安全飲用。建議軟化水中的鈉含量不超過300毫克/公升。.
在硬度非常高的地區，由於軟化過程後鈉含量很高，因此不能使用軟化水來沖泡嬰兒奶粉。.

5.3 軟水裝置中的鹽分會進入飲用水嗎？

鹽分沒有機會經由軟化裝置進入飲用水中。.
軟水器中鹽的唯一作用是再生去除水中硬度的樹脂珠。.

5.4 人體從軟化水中會吸收多少鈉？

軟化水中鈉的吸收量取決於水的硬度。平均而言，飲用軟化水所吸收的鈉少於3%。.
據估計，一個人每天從各種來源攝取約兩到三茶匙鹽。假設每天透過食物攝取五克鈉，並飲用三誇脫水，那麼家用軟水過程中水中鈉（Na+）的含量與許多富含鈉的食物的每日總攝取量相比微乎其微。.

5.5 軟化飲用水會使其失去必需的礦物質嗎？

軟化水不會去除水中必需的礦物質。軟化只會去除飲用水中導致水質變硬的礦物質，例如鈣、鎂和鐵。.

6. 軟水器維護

6.1 軟化器樹脂何時需要更換？

如果水軟化效果不佳，應先檢查所用鹽是否有問題，或軟水器零件是否有機械故障。如果這些因素都不是軟化效果不佳的原因，則可能需要更換軟水樹脂，甚至更換整個軟水器。.
根據經驗，我們知道大多數軟化樹脂和離子交換樹脂的使用壽命約為 20 至 25 年。.

6.2 軟水器鹽水箱需要清洗嗎？

通常情況下，除非所使用的鹽產品含有大量不溶於水的物質，或出現某種嚴重故障，否則無需清理鹽水箱。.
如果樹脂中積聚了不溶性物質，應清理儲液罐，以防止軟水器故障。.

6.3 什麼是「網狀化」？我們為什麼要避免它？

當在樹脂中使用鬆散的鹽粒或塊狀鹽時，可能會形成類似食鹽的微小蒸發鹽晶體。這些晶體可能會相互粘連，在鹽水箱中形成厚厚的結塊。這種現象通常被稱為‘結塊’，可能會中斷鹽水的產生。鹽水的產生是軟水器中樹脂珠更新的關鍵。如果沒有鹽水的產生，軟水器就無法產生軟水。.

7. 軟化器操作問題

7.1 軟水器排放的鹽水會損壞化糞池嗎？

水質協會已就此主題進行研究。這些研究表明，位置正確且運作良好的化糞池不會因軟水器排放的鹽水而受損。而且，軟化水有時甚至有助於減少排放到化糞池的洗滌劑用量。.

7.2 軟水器可以與鉛管一起使用嗎？

鉛管系統必須更換，軟化水才能流經其中。雖然硬水地區的鉛管系統可能不會造成問題，但建議還是更換。當天然或人工軟化的水流入這些鉛管系統時，可能會導致鉛的沉積。.

7.2 能否在線上測量水的硬度？

是的，雖然此測量系統主要應用於工業軟水器。.

8. 家庭內部關係緩和

8.1 搬家時可以帶走軟水機嗎？

現代軟水器便於攜帶，搬家時可以輕鬆帶走。安裝方式採用快速連接，類似洗衣機的安裝方式。.
只要關閉軟水器的進水閥和出水閥，打開旁通閥，讓硬水流向儲水箱和家用水龍頭即可。之後，即可斷開軟水器，將其移至新的位置並安裝到位。.

8.2 軟水機的廢水可以直接排放到花園裡嗎？

由於鹽水會改變植物賴以調節水分需求的滲透壓，因此應避免直接排放氯化鈉或氯化鉀鹽水。.

8.3 軟化水對改善皮膚乾燥有幫助嗎？

值得注意的是，有些皮膚乾燥的人從軟化水的過程中受益，因為軟水對頭髮和皮膚更溫和。.

什麼是逆滲透？凱文2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

什麼是逆滲透？

逆滲透（通常稱為 RO）是一種透過加壓將水通過半透膜逆滲透膜來去除水中礦物質或離子的過程。.

滲透作用

要了解逆滲透的目的和過程，首先必須了解自然界中發生的…過程。滲透作用.

滲透作用是一種自然現象，也是自然界最重要的過程之一。它是指濃度較低的鹽溶液向濃度較高的鹽溶液移動的過程。例如，植物根係從土壤中吸收水分，以及我們的腎臟從血液中吸收水分，都是滲透作用的例子。.

下圖展示了滲透作用的原理。濃度較低的溶液會自然地遷移到濃度較高的溶液。例如，如果一個容器裡裝滿了低鹽濃度的水，另一個容器裡裝滿了高鹽濃度的水，並且這兩個容器之間用半透膜隔開，那麼低鹽濃度的水就會開始向高鹽濃度的水容器中遷移。.

A 半透膜這是一種允許某些原子或分子通過，但阻止其他原子或分子通過的膜。一個簡單的例子是紗門。它允許空氣分子通過，但阻止害蟲或任何比紗門孔徑更大的物體通過。另一個例子是戈爾特斯（Gore-tex）服裝布料，它包含一層極薄的塑膠薄膜，薄膜上切割了數十億個微小的孔。這些孔夠大，可以讓水蒸氣通過，但又夠小，可以阻止液態水通過。.

逆滲透是指滲透作用的逆過程。. 滲透作用自然發生，無需能量；而要逆轉滲透過程，則需要對高鹽溶液施加能量。逆滲透膜是一種半透膜，允許水分子通過，但阻止大部分溶解的鹽分、有機物、細菌和熱原通過。然而，要實現脫鹽（去礦質或去離子）過程，需要施加大於自然滲透壓的壓力，使水「通過」逆滲透膜，從而讓純水通過，同時阻擋大部分污染物。.

下圖概述了逆滲透過程。當對濃縮溶液施加壓力時，水分子被迫通過半透膜，而污染物則被阻擋在外。.

逆滲透的工作原理是什麼？

逆滲透的工作原理是利用高壓幫浦提高逆滲透裝置鹽側的壓力，迫使水流通過半透膜，從而將幾乎所有（約95%至99%）溶解的鹽分截留在濃縮液中。所需的壓力取決於進水的鹽濃度。進水濃度越高，克服滲透壓所需的壓力越大。.

經過脫鹽或去離子處理的淡化水稱為滲透水（或產品水）。攜帶未通過逆滲透膜的濃縮污染物的流稱為濃水（或濃縮液）。.

當進水在壓力下（足以克服滲透壓）進入逆滲透膜時，水分子會穿過半透膜，而鹽分和其他污染物則被阻擋在外，並透過濃水（也稱為濃縮液或鹽水）排出。濃水最終排入下水道，或在某些情況下可以回流到進水系統中，循環利用於逆滲透系統，從而節省用水。能夠穿過逆滲透膜的水稱為滲透液或產品水，通常其中約有951TP³T至991TP³T的溶解鹽被去除。.

需要注意的是，逆滲透系統採用的是交叉過濾，而非傳統的過濾方式，後者是將污染物截留在濾材內部。在交叉過濾中，溶液流經濾膜（或稱為「交叉過濾」），有兩個出口：過濾後的水從一個方向流出，含污染的水從另一個方向流出。為了避免污染物積聚，交叉流過濾能夠使水流帶走積聚的污染物，並產生足夠的湍流以保持膜表面清潔。.

逆滲透技術會從水中去除哪些物質？

逆滲透技術能夠去除進水中高達 99%+ 的溶解鹽（離子）、顆粒物、膠體、有機物、細菌和熱原（但不能指望反滲透系統去除 100% 的細菌和病毒）。逆滲透膜根據污染物的大小和電荷進行截留。任何分子量大於 200 的污染物都可能被運作正常的逆滲透系統截留（相較之下，水分子的分子量為 18）。同樣，污染物的離子電荷越大，就越難通過逆滲透膜。例如，鈉離子只有一個電荷（一價），因此不像鈣離子那樣容易被逆滲透膜截留（鈣離子有兩個電荷）。同樣，這也是為什麼逆滲透系統無法很好地去除二氧化碳等氣體的原因，因為它們在溶液中電離程度不高（帶電荷），而且分子量很低。由於逆滲透系統不會去除氣體，滲透水的 pH 值可能會略低於正常值，這取決於進水中的 CO2 含量，因為 CO2 會轉化為碳酸。.

逆滲透技術在處理半鹹水、地表水和地下水方面非常有效，適用於各種規模的用水需求。使用逆滲透水的行業包括製藥、鍋爐給水、食品飲料、金屬表面處理和半導體製造等等。.

逆滲透性能與設計計算

有一些計算方法用於評估逆滲透系統的性能，並用於設計考慮。逆滲透系統配備儀表，用於顯示水質、流量、壓力，有時顯示其他數據，例如溫度或運行時間。為了準確測量逆滲透系統的性能，至少需要以下運作參數：

1. 進料壓力

2. 滲透液壓力

3. 集中壓力

4. 進料電導率

5. 滲透液電導率

6. 進料流量

7. 滲透液流量

8. 溫度

鹽去除 %

公式可以告訴您逆滲透膜去除污染物的效率。它並非顯示每張膜的特定性能，而是顯示整個系統的平均性能。設計良好、逆滲透膜運作正常的系統，可以去除951TP³T至991TP³T的大多數進水污染物（特定尺寸和電荷的污染物）。您可以使用以下公式來確定逆滲透膜去除污染物的效率：

脫鹽率越高，系統效能越好。低脫鹽率可能意味著膜需要清洗或更換。.

鹽通道 %

這其實是前一個公式中鹽截留率的倒數。它表示通過逆滲透系統的鹽量百分比。鹽透過率越低，系統效能越好。鹽透過率過高可能意味著膜需要清洗或更換。.

恢復 %

回收率是指被「回收」為優質滲透水的量。換句話說，回收率是指不作為濃縮液排放，而是作為滲透液或產品水收集的水量。回收率（%）越高，表示排放到排水處的濃縮液越少，而保留的滲透水越多。然而，如果回收率（%）對於逆滲透（RO）系統設計而言過高，則可能導致結垢和污染等更嚴重的問題。 RO系統的回收率（%）是藉助設計軟體確定的，該軟體會考慮許多因素，例如進水化學性質和RO系統前的預處理。因此，RO系統應運作的適當回收率（%）取決於其設計用途。透過計算回收率（%），您可以快速確定係統是否在超出預期設計範圍的情況下運作。回收率（%）的計算方法如下：

例如，如果回收率為 75%，則表示每 100 加侖進入逆滲透系統的進水，可回收 75 加侖可用滲透水，而 25 加侖則作為濃縮液排出。工業逆滲透系統的回收率通常在 50% 到 85% 之間，取決於進水特性和其他設計因素。.

濃度因子

濃縮倍數與逆滲透系統的回收率密切相關，是逆滲透系統設計中的重要參數。滲透液回收率越高（即%回收率越高），濃縮液中鹽類和污染物的濃度也越高。當濃縮倍數過高，超出系統設計和進水成分的限制時，逆滲透膜表面結垢的風險就會增加。.

這個原理與鍋爐或冷卻水塔並無二致。它們都以純淨水（蒸汽）的形式排出系統，最終留下濃縮溶液。隨著濃度的增加，溶液的溶解度可能超過極限，並在設備表面沉澱形成水垢。.

例如，如果進料流量為 100 gpm，滲透液流量為 75 gpm，則回收率為 (75/100) x 100 = 75%。若要計算濃縮係數，公式為 1 ÷ (1-75%) = 4。.

濃縮倍數為 4 表示進入濃縮液流的水的濃度將是進水的 4 倍。若本例的進水濃度為 500 ppm，則濃縮液的濃度為 500 × 4 = 2,000 ppm。.

通量

例如，你有以下內容：
逆滲透系統每分鐘產水75加侖（gpm）。您有3個逆滲透容器，每個容器裝有6個逆滲透膜。因此，總共有3 x 6 = 18個膜。您逆滲透系統中使用的薄膜型號為陶氏Filmtec BW30-365。這種逆滲透膜（或膜元件）的表面積為365平方英尺。.

求通量（Gfd）：

通量為 16 Gfd。.

這意味著每天每平方英尺的RO膜上會通過16加侖的水。這個數值的好壞取決於進水的水質和系統設計。以下是不同水源的通量範圍的一般經驗法則，使用RO設計軟體可以更準確地確定通量。如果在上述範例中使用的是Dow Filmtec LE-440i RO膜，則磁通將為14。因此，務必考慮所使用的膜類型，並盡量保持整個系統中膜類型的一致性。.

給水源	政府財政
污水排放	5-10
海水	8-12
微鹹地表水	10-14
半鹹井水	14-18
逆滲透滲透水	20-30

質量平衡

質量平衡方程式用於幫助判斷您的流量和質量儀表讀數是否正確，或是否需要校準。如果您的儀表讀數不正確，那麼您收集的效能數據趨勢分析就毫無意義。.

要進行質量平衡計算，您需要從逆滲透系統中收集以下數據：

1. 進料流量（加侖/分鐘）

2. 滲透液流量（加侖/分鐘）

3. 濃縮液流量（加侖/分鐘）

4. 進料電導率（µS）

5. 滲透液電導率（µS）

6. 濃縮液電導率 (µS)

質量平衡方程式為：

（進料流）¹ x 進料電導率）=（滲透流量 x 滲透電導率）
+（濃縮液流量*濃縮液電導率）

¹進料流量等於滲透液流量 + 濃縮液流量
例如，如果您從逆滲透系統中收集了以下資料：

滲透液流	5加侖/分鐘
進料電導率	500 微秒
滲透電導率	10 微秒
濃縮液流量	2 加侖/分鐘
濃縮液電導率	1200 微秒

那麼質量平衡方程式就是：

（7 x 500）= （5 x 10）+ （2*1200）

3,500 ≠ 2,450

然後找出差異

（差值/總和）* 100

((3,500 – 2,450) / (3,500 + 2,450)) * 100

= 18%

+/- 5% 的偏差是可以接受的。 +/- 5% 至 10% 的偏差通常也足夠。大於 +/- 10% 的偏差是不可接受的，需要對逆滲透 (RO) 儀器進行校準，以確保收集到有效資料。在上述範例中，RO 質量平衡方程式超出了正常範圍，需要進行調整。.

了解逆滲透 (RO) 系統中各級和各步驟之間的差異

期限階段和經過在逆滲透系統中，1 和 2 經常被混淆，這可能會讓逆滲透操作員感到困惑。理解 1 和 2 之間的差異非常重要。階段 RO 和 1 和 2 經過 RO。.

單級和雙級逆滲透系統的區別

在單級逆滲透系統中，進水以單一水流進入逆滲透系統，並以濃縮液或滲透液的形式離開逆滲透系統。.

在兩級系統中，第一級的濃縮液（或廢液）作為第二級的進水。第一級的滲透液與第二級的滲透液混合。增加級數可以提高系統的回收率。.

大批

在逆滲透系統中，「陣列」一詞描述了兩級系統中壓力容器的物理排列方式。壓力容器內裝有逆滲透膜（通常每個壓力容器內裝有1至6個逆滲透膜）。每一級可以包含一定數量的裝有逆滲透膜的壓力容器。每一級的濃縮液隨後成為下一級的進料。上一頁所示的兩級逆滲透系統採用2:1陣列，這表示前兩個逆滲透容器的濃縮液（或濃縮液）被送入下一個容器。.

附濃縮液回收的逆滲透系統

對於無法進行適當分級的逆滲透系統，如果進水化學成分允許，則可以使用濃縮液循環裝置，將部分濃縮液流送回第一級進水，以幫助提高系統回收率。.

單程RO與雙程RO

想想看經過作為一套獨立的逆滲透系統。考慮到這一點，單級逆滲透系統和雙級逆滲透系統的區別在於，雙級逆滲透系統中，第一級逆滲透液作為第二級（或第二套逆滲透系統）的進水，最終產生更高質量的逆滲透液，因為它實際上經過了兩套反滲透系統的處理。.

除了能產生更高品質的滲透液外，雙級逆滲透系統還允許透過在第一級和第二級逆滲透之間注入鹼液來去除滲透液中的二氧化碳。當逆滲透後使用混合床離子交換樹脂床時，二氧化碳是不利的。透過在第一級逆滲透後添加鹼液，可以提高第一級逆滲透水的pH值，並將二氧化碳轉化為碳酸氫根離子（HCO3-）和碳酸根離子（CO3-2），從而提高第二級逆滲透膜的截留率。單級逆滲透系統無法實現這一點，因為注入鹼液並在鈣等陽離子存在的情況下生成碳酸根離子（CO3-2）會導致逆滲透膜結垢。.

RO預處理

採用機械和化學方法進行適當的預處理對於逆滲透系統至關重要，它可以防止膜污染、結垢，避免因膜過早失效而造成的高昂維修費用和頻繁清洗。以下總結了缺乏適當的預處理而導致的逆滲透系統常見問題。.

結垢

當污染物在膜表面積聚並堵塞膜時，就會發生膜污染。市政供水中含有許多肉眼不可見且對人體無害的污染物，但這些污染物的分子大小足以迅速堵塞逆滲透（RO）系統。膜污染通常發生在RO系統的前端，導致RO系統壓降增加，滲透液流量降低。這會增加運作成本，最終需要清洗或更換RO膜。鑑於RO膜的孔徑極小，無論您的預處理和清洗方案多麼有效，膜污染最終都會發生。然而，透過適當的預處理，您可以最大限度地減少定期處理膜污染相關問題的需要。.

結垢可能由下列原因造成：

1.顆粒狀或膠體狀物質（泥土、淤泥、黏土等）

2. 有機物（腐植酸/富裡酸等）

3. 微生物（細菌等）。細菌是造成逆滲透膜污染最常見的原因之一，因為目前使用的逆滲透膜無法耐受氯等消毒劑，因此微生物常常能夠在膜表面滋生繁殖。它們會形成覆蓋膜表面的生物膜，導致嚴重的膜污染。.

4. 逆滲透裝置上游濾料的穿透。顆粒活性碳（GAC）濾床和軟化濾床可能會出現排水洩漏，如果後置過濾措施不足，濾料可能會堵塞逆滲透系統。.

透過進行分析測試，您可以確定逆滲透系統的進水是否具有較高的結垢風險。為了防止逆滲透系統結垢，通常採用機械過濾方法。最常用的防結垢方法是使用多介質過濾器 (MMF) 或微濾 (MF)。在某些情況下，濾芯過濾也足以滿足要求。.

規模化

當某些溶解的（無機）化合物濃度升高時（回想一下濃縮倍數的討論），如果這些化合物超過其溶解度極限，就會在膜表面沉澱形成水垢。水垢會導致系統壓力降增大、鹽透率升高（脫鹽率降低）、滲透流量降低、滲透水水質下降。逆滲透膜上常見的水垢之一是碳酸鈣（CaCO₃）。₃).

化學攻擊

現代薄膜複合膜不耐氯或氯胺。氯等氧化劑會腐蝕膜孔，造成不可逆的傷害。化學侵蝕逆滲透膜會導致滲透流量增加和鹽透過率升高（滲透水水質變差）。正因如此，由於缺乏殺菌劑來抑制微生物生長，逆滲透膜上微生物的滋生極易導致膜污染。.

機械性損傷

預處理方案的一部分應包括逆滲透（RO）系統的前後管道和控制系統。如果發生‘硬啟動’，可能會對膜造成機械損傷。同樣，如果RO系統背壓過高，也會對RO膜造成機械性傷害。這些問題可以透過使用變頻驅動馬達啟動RO系統的高壓泵，以及安裝止回閥和/或洩壓閥來解決，以防止RO裝置背壓過高造成永久性膜損傷。.

預處理溶液

以下是一些逆滲透系統的預處理解決方案，可幫助最大限度地減少結垢、結垢和化學侵蝕。.

多重介質過濾（MMF）

多介質過濾器用於防止逆滲透系統結垢。多重介質過濾器通常包含三層濾料，分別為無菸煤、沙和石榴石，底部有一層礫石作為支撐層。之所以選擇這些濾料，是因為它們的尺寸和密度各不相同。較大（但較輕）的無菸煤位於頂部，而較重（但較小）的石榴石則位於底部。這種濾料排列方式使得較大的污垢顆粒在濾料層頂部附近被去除，而較小的污垢顆粒則被截留在濾料層更深處。這樣，整個濾料層都能起到過濾作用，從而延長了反沖洗之間的運行時間，並提高了顆粒物去除效率。.

一個運作良好的多介質過濾器可以去除小至 15-20 微米的顆粒物。而添加了混凝劑（使微小顆粒聚集在一起形成足夠大的可過濾顆粒）的多介質過濾器則可以去除小至 5-10 微米的顆粒物。為了便於理解，一根頭髮的直徑約為 50 微米。.

當淤泥密度指數 (SDI) 值大於 3 或濁度大於 0.2 NTU 時，建議使用多介質過濾器。雖然沒有硬性規定，但應遵循上述指導原則，以防止逆滲透膜過早污染。.

為了防止多膜過濾裝置（MMF）的底部排水管發生故障，必須在MMF裝置後方直接安裝一個5微米濾芯過濾器。這樣可以避免MMF濾材損壞下游幫浦並污染逆滲透（RO）系統。.

微濾（MF）

微濾 (MF) 能有效去除膠體和細菌，其孔徑僅 0.1-10µm。微濾有助於降低逆滲透 (RO) 裝置的污染風險。不同製造商的膜結構可能有所不同，但「中空纖維」型是最常用的。通常，水從纖維外部泵入，而淨水則從纖維內部收集。用於飲用水處理的微濾膜通常採用「死端流」模式。在死端流模式下，所有進入薄膜的水都會被過濾。濾餅會形成，必須定期從膜表面進行反沖洗。對於水質較高、濁度較低的進水，回收率通常高於 90%。.

阻垢劑和阻垢劑

顧名思義，阻垢劑和固垢抑制劑是添加到逆滲透裝置進水中的化學物質，用來降低進水結垢的可能性。阻垢劑和固垢抑制劑能夠提高難結垢無機化合物的溶解度。透過提高溶解度，可以進一步濃縮鹽類，從而獲得更高的回收率和更高的濃縮倍數。阻垢劑和固垢抑制劑的作用機轉是乾擾水垢的形成和晶體的生長。阻垢劑或固垢抑制劑的選擇以及正確的用量取決於進水的水質和逆滲透系統的設計。.

離子交換軟化

軟水器可以透過交換結垢離子和非結垢離子來幫助防止逆滲透系統中的水垢形成。與多膜過濾裝置一樣，為了防止軟水器底部排水管失效，在軟水器後方直接安裝一個5微米濾芯過濾器非常重要。.

亞硫酸氫鈉（SBS）注射液

在逆滲透裝置之前，在水流中添加適量的亞硫酸氫鈉（SBS 或 SMBS，一種還原劑），可以去除餘氯。.

顆粒活性碳（GAC）

顆粒活性碳（GAC）用於去除水中的有機成分和殘留消毒劑（例如氯和氯胺）。 GAC濾料由煤、堅果殼或木材製成。活性碳透過化學反應去除殘留的氯和氯胺，該反應涉及電子從GAC表面轉移到殘留的氯或氯胺。氯或氯胺最終轉化為氯離子，不再具有氧化性。.

在逆滲透裝置前使用顆粒活性碳（GAC）的缺點在於，GAC 會迅速去除其頂部的氯。這會導致 GAC 床層剩餘部分缺乏殺菌劑來殺死微生物。 GAC 床層會吸收整個床層內的有機物，這些有機物是細菌的潛在食物來源，因此 GAC 床層最終可能成為細菌滋生的溫床，這些細菌很容易進入逆滲透膜。同樣，在某些情況下，GAC 床層會產生非常細小的碳粉，這些碳粉可能會污染逆滲透膜。.

RO 數據趨勢和標準化

逆滲透膜是逆滲透系統的核心部件，需要收集一些數據點來判斷逆滲透膜的健康狀況。這些數據點包括系統壓力、流量、水質和溫度。水溫與壓力成正比。當水溫降低時，水的黏度增加，逆滲透滲透液流量下降，因為需要更大的壓力才能將水推過薄膜。同樣，水溫升高時，逆滲透滲透液流量增加。因此，必須對逆滲透系統的效能資料進行標準化處理，以避免在沒有問題的情況下將流量變化解讀為異常。應計算標準化後的流量、壓力和脫鹽率，並將其繪製成圖表，與基線數據（逆滲透系統調試時或膜清洗/更換後的數據）進行比較，以幫助排查問題，並確定何時需要清洗或檢查膜的損壞情況。數據標準化有助於展現逆滲透膜的真實性能。一般來說，當標準化後的變化與基線資料相差 +/- 15% 時，就需要採取措施。如果不遵守這條規則，逆滲透膜清洗可能無法有效地使膜恢復到接近新膜的性能。.

逆滲透膜清洗

逆滲透膜不可避免地需要定期清洗，根據進水水質的不同，每年清洗次數為 1 至 4 次。一般來說，如果標準化壓力降或標準化鹽透過率增加了 15%，則需要清洗逆滲透膜。如果標準化滲透流量減少了 15%，也需要清洗逆滲透膜。您可以選擇在原位清洗逆滲透膜，也可以將其從逆滲透系統中拆卸下來，由專業的服務公司進行異地清洗。實務證明，異地清洗比使用現場清洗設備清洗效果更好。.

逆滲透膜清洗需要使用低pH值和高pH值的清潔劑來去除薄膜上的污染物。結垢使用低pH值清潔劑處理，而有機物、膠體和生物污染則使用高pH值清潔劑處理。逆滲透膜清洗不僅僅是使用合適的化學藥劑。它還涉及許多其他因素，例如流量、水溫和水質、清洗設備的合理設計和尺寸，以及許多其他因素。經驗豐富的服務團隊必須考慮這些因素才能正確清洗逆滲透膜。.

概括

逆滲透是一種高效且成熟的技術，可生產適用於眾多需要去離子水或脫鹽水的工業應用的水。在逆滲透系統之後進行進一步的後處理，例如混合床去離子，可以提高逆滲透滲透水的質量，使其滿足最嚴苛的應用需求。對逆滲透系統進行適當的預處理和監測對於避免昂貴的維修和非計劃性維護至關重要。憑藉正確的系統設計、維護計劃和經驗豐富的服務支持，您的逆滲透系統應能提供多年的高純度水。.

什麼是硬水？凱文2014-09-13T16:57:28-05:00

什麼是硬水？

當水被稱為「硬水」時，這僅僅意味著它比普通水含有更多的礦物質，尤其是鈣和鎂。水的硬度隨著礦物質含量的增加而增加。鈣和鎂溶解。.

鎂和鈣是帶正電荷的離子。由於它們的存在，其他帶正電荷的離子在硬水中的溶解度會比在不含鈣和鎂的水中低。.
這就是肥皂在硬水中不易溶解的原因。.

什麼是空氣？凱文2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

什麼是空氣？

空氣是地球‘的氣氛. 這是顯而易見的氣體生物居住的地方呼吸. 它形狀和體積都不固定。它沒有顏色或者聞. 它有大量的和重量. 這是一個事因為它有質量和重量。空氣產生大氣壓力. 裡面沒有空氣。真空和宇宙.

空氣是一種混合物 78.03% 氮, 20.99% 氧, 0.94% 氬氣, 0.03% 二氧化碳, 0.01% 氫, 0.00123%氖, 0.0004% 氦, 0.00005% 氪和 0.000006% 氙.

[1] 另外還有少量其他物品。.

動物和人類都需要氧在空中生存。在人體, ，這肺給……供氧血, 並回饋社會二氧化碳植物需要空氣中的二氧化碳才能生存。它們釋放氧氣，供人類呼吸。.

風空氣在流動。空氣可能受到污染某些氣體（例如）臭氧和一氧化碳), 抽煙, ，和灰. 有些人認為這一點污染可能是其中之一原因的全球暖化, 透過導致“溫室效應“。”.

安大略省的空氣品質是在改善還是惡化？行政人員2014-01-16T14:42:04-05:00

安大略省的空氣品質是在改善還是惡化？

自 1988 年以來，安大略省的空氣品質穩步改善。在大約 90% 的時間裡，我們的空氣品質都很好。.

發布霧霾預警的目的是什麼？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

發布霧霾預警的目的是什麼？

這些警報的目的是告知呼吸困難的人避免不必要地暴露於煙霧中，告知主要污染源應考慮盡可能減少排放，並呼籲大家透過減少產生煙霧的活動來減輕這個問題。.

該省哪裡空氣品質最好，霧霾發生率最低？行政人員2014-01-16T14:42:25-05:00

該省哪裡空氣品質最好，霧霾發生率最低？

一般來說，隨著你向北和向東穿越該省，空氣品質會逐漸改善，但是，煙霧的形成和輸送很大程度上取決於氣象條件。.

安大略省的夏季霧霾通常是北美東北部大部分地區普遍存在的區域性天氣狀況的一部分。臭氧和細懸浮微粒濃度升高通常是由於影響五大湖下游地區的天氣模式造成的。這類天氣模式總是與該地區緩慢移動的高壓系統有關，並導致來自鄰近美國工業化和城市化州的霧霾污染物在西南向東北暖空氣流動的過程中被長距離輸送。.

尋找居住地時，請務必考慮當地的環境因素。例如，最好避開工業密集、交通幹道密集的區域。車輛在高速公路或其他道路上的排放影響取決於多種因素，包括：距離高速公路的遠近；交通流量；交通擁堵情況（暢通或擁擠）；以及主導風向。.

一般來說，高速公路對空氣污染物的影響會隨著與道路距離的增加而顯著降低。通常情況下，距離路邊100公尺左右，污染物濃度就能降低60%到80%。此外，樹木可以過濾空氣，因此樹木茂盛的區域空氣品質通常優於沒有樹木的區域。.

什麼是霧霾？行政人員2014-01-16T14:42:30-05:00

什麼是霧霾？

煙霧是一個統稱，用來描述多種空氣污染物的混合物，其中以近地面臭氧和細顆粒物為主。臭氧是由氮氧化物和揮發性有機化合物在陽光照射下結合形成的，因此臭氧主要出現在夏季，尤其是在安大略省南部。細懸浮微粒主要由大氣中的化學反應和燃料燃燒產生，它一年四季都可能加劇煙霧濃度。.

霧霾從何而來？行政人員2014-01-16T14:42:35-05:00

霧霾從何而來？

造成霧霾的污染物是在車輛、發電廠、工廠鍋爐和家庭燃燒化石燃料時釋放的。工業生產過程、液體燃料的蒸發以及溶劑和其他揮發性產品（例如油基塗料）的使用也會釋放這些污染物。森林火災會釋放導致霧霾的污染物，樹木、沼澤和火山活動等自然來源也會排放這些污染物。安大略省的大部分霧霾問題是由本地排放和風從美國污染源輸送的污染物共同造成的。超過一半的霧霾來自美國南部邊境。.

如何預測霧霾狀況？行政人員2014-01-16T14:42:39-05:00

如何預測霧霾狀況？

安大略省環境廳的氣象學家將污染物濃度的即時資訊與天氣模式、地形條件和排放源數據相結合，以預測即將出現的霧霾問題。這些數據由遍佈全省的40個空氣監測站組成的網路所收集。過去四年，該廳已投資超過100萬至600萬加元用於升級安大略省的空氣監測網絡，使其成為北美最現代化、設備最完善的空氣監測網絡。.

什麼是空氣品質指數？行政人員2014-01-16T14:42:49-05:00

什麼是空氣品質指數？

空氣品質指數（AQI）是衡量空氣品質的指標，它是基於對人類健康和環境有不利影響的污染物。這些污染物包括臭氧、細懸浮微粒、二氧化氮、一氧化碳、二氧化硫和總還原硫化合物。.

空氣品質指數（AQI）低於32時，空氣品質為良好或非常好。 AQI介於32至49之間表示空氣品質中等，50至99之間表示空氣品質較差，高於99則表示空氣品質非常差。.

空氣質量指數（AQI）是如何計算的？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

空氣質量指數（AQI）是如何計算的？

空氣品質指數（AQI）是一個計算指標，可為安大略省居民提供近乎即時的空氣品質資訊。此指數針對不同的描述性類別（例如，優、良、中等、差和差）設定了各自的濃度分界點。由於北美各地的空氣品質指數計算方法不統一，且計算公式複雜，因此很難直接比較不同地區的空氣品質指數。.

空氣質量指數 (AQI) 與各污染物濃度之間的關係如下所示。對於每個類別，假設指數值與子指數污染物的濃度之間存在線性關係。每小時結束時，各個 AQI 監測點測得的每種污染物的濃度都會使用統一的尺度或指數轉換為從零開始的數值。每種污染物的計算值稱為子指數。在特定監測點，最高的子指數即為該點當小時的 AQI 讀數。.

臭氧（O₃）₃)
空氣品質指數類別	[O₃] (ppb)	空氣質量指數方程
非常好	0到23	0.6520 × [O₃] + 0
好的	24至50	0.5800 × [O₃] + 2.154
緩和	51至80	0.5900 × [O₃] + 2.1
貧窮的	81至149	0.7200 × [O₃] – 8.37
非常差	>149	0.7200 × [O₃] – 8.37

細懸浮微粒（PM2.5）_2.5)
空氣品質指數類別	[下午_2.53小時平均值（µg/m）³)	空氣質量指數方程
非常好	<12	1.364 × [PM_2.5] + 0
好的	12至22	1.500 × [PM_2.5] – 2.000
緩和	23至45	0.7727 × [PM_2.5] + 14.228
貧窮的	46至90	1.113 × [PM_2.5] – 1.298
非常差	>90	1.100 × [PM_2.5] + 0

二氧化硫（SO₂）₂)
空氣品質指數類別	[所以₂] (ppb)	空氣質量指數方程
非常好	0 到 79	0.1899 × [SO₂] + 0
好的	80至169	0.1685 × [SO₂] + 2.520
緩和	170 至 250	0.2125 × [SO₂] – 4.125
貧窮的	251 至 1999 年	0.0280 × [SO₂] + 42.97
非常差	1999年以後	0.0500 × [SO₂] + 0

二氧化氮（NO₂）₂)
空氣品質指數類別	[不₂] (ppb)	空氣質量指數方程
非常好	0 到 50	0.300 × [NO₂] + 0
好的	51至110	0.2543 × [NO₂] + 3.00
緩和	111至200	0.191 × [NO₂] + 10.79
貧窮的	201至524	0.1517 × [NO₂] + 19.5
非常差	>524	0.1903 × [NO₂] + 0

一氧化碳（CO）
空氣品質指數類別	[CO] (ppm)	空氣質量指數方程
非常好	0 到 12.49	1.2500 × [CO] + 0
好的	12.50 至 22.49	1.6700 × [CO] – 5.67
緩和	22.50 至 30.49	2.4300 × [CO] – 23.86
貧窮的	30.50 至 49.49	2.7200 × [CO] – 34.39
非常差	>49.49	2.0000 × [CO] + 0

總還原硫（TRS）
空氣品質指數類別	[TRS] (ppb)	空氣質量指數方程
非常好	0 到 5.49	3.0000 × [TRS] + 0
好的	5.50 至 10.49	3.7500 × [TRS] – 6.50
緩和	10.50 至 27.49	1.0625 × [TRS] + 20.31
貧窮的	27.50 至 999.49	0.05046 × [TRS] + 48.59
非常差	>999.49	0.1000 × [TRS] + 0

筆記：

十億分之一 (ppb)
微克/立方米 (µg/m³)³)
百萬分之幾 (ppm)

我們是如何改進霧霾預報的？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

我們是如何改進霧霾預報的？

自 2000 年 5 月 1 日起，作為安大略省空氣品質新舉措的一部分，該部門比以往任何時候都更早、更有效地發布了空氣品質不佳的通知。.

當空氣品質和天氣狀況可能導致霧霾時，該部門會採取措施通知公眾，並警告那些最容易受到空氣品質惡化影響的人。該部門提供兩級預警：

A 霧霾監測當預計未來三天內出現高濃度霧霾的機率為 50% 時，就會發布霧霾預警。.
A 霧霾預警 如果預計未來 24 小時內很可能出現高濃度的煙霧，或者如果出現大範圍的、較差的空氣品質指數讀數，並且預計有利於這種濃度持續數小時的天氣條件，則可以立即發布。.

當天氣變化導致空氣品質改善時，該部門會發布終止通知。.

2001 年 5 月，該部門採取了一項政策，即如果出現大範圍的空氣品質指數 (AQI) 讀數較差，並且預計有利於這種水平持續數小時的天氣條件，則立即發布霧霾警報。.

截至2002年8月，該部門將細懸浮微粒（PM2.5）納入考量。_2.5）到其空氣質量指數。這個新的子指數為安大略省居民提供更多空氣品質信息，以便他們能夠做出明智的決定，保護自身健康並幫助改善我們共同擁有的空氣品質。.

即使沒有發布霧霾監測或霧霾警報，空氣品質可能很差嗎？行政人員2014-01-16T14:43:08-05:00

即使沒有發布霧霾監測或霧霾警報，空氣品質可能很差嗎？

是的。由於霧霾與天氣密切相關，因此不可能始終做到百分之百準確。例如，天氣系統可能會提前到達安大略省，或改變方向。.

因此，即使沒有發布霧霾預警，空氣品質也可能變差。同樣，即使發布了霧霾預警，空氣品質變差的情況也可能不會出現。.

哪裡可以取得每小時污染物濃度資料？行政人員2014-01-16T14:43:12-05:00

哪裡可以取得每小時污染物濃度資料？

安大略省環境廳 (MOE) 的空氣品質指數網站為使用者提供 MOE 環境監測站的每小時污染物濃度資料。資料輸出包含監測站和污染物訊息，並以 .HTML 和/或 .CSV 格式提供，可直接匯入 Excel 或任何其他電子表格應用程式。目前，可在線上取得 2000 年至 2012 年的數據。存取該工具的網址為：http://www.airqualityontario.com/history/

SHARP PM2.5 監測儀對報告的 PM2.5 濃度有何影響？行政人員2014-01-16T14:44:29-05:00

SHARP PM2.5 監測儀對報告的 PM2.5 濃度有何影響？

夏普新款監測儀能夠檢測PM的其他成分。_2.5, 尤其是在寒冷天氣下。由於監測技術的進步，PM2.5 的監測結果可能會更高。_2.5 冬季期間的濃度增加。這反映了測量精度的提高，並不一定意味著安大略省的空氣品質正在改變。空氣本身並沒有改變，只是監測方法改變了。.

安大略省為什麼要升級PM2.5監測網路？行政人員2014-01-16T14:43:22-05:00

安大略省為什麼要升級PM2.5監測網路？

安大略省致力於成為空氣品質報告的領導者，並持續受益於北美最全面的空氣監測系統之一。此網路升級由加拿大環境部根據一項旨在標準化PM2.5的國家計畫提供資金支持。_2.5 制定加拿大各地的監測方法，確保數據可比性。目標是讓所有轄區都採用聯邦政府批准的PM（顆粒物）技術。_2.5 到 2013 年，顯示器數量將達到 10,000 台。.

我如何獲取空氣品質資訊？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

我如何獲取空氣品質資訊？

本網站內容： http://www.airqualityontario.com. 本網站提供空氣品質指數 (AQI) 讀數、環境空氣污染數據和空氣品質預報，以及發布霧霾警報時可採取的措施資訊。您也可以訂閱該部門的… 煙霧預警網絡, 並且，每當該部門發布霧霾預警或霧霾警報時，您都會收到一封自動電子郵件。.
電話查詢：您可以撥打免費電話 1-800-387-7768 或多倫多地區電話 416-246-0411，透過錄音電話取得空氣品質指數 (AQI) 讀數。如需法語空氣品質指數讀數，請撥打 1-800-221-8852。.
透過廣播和電視：安大略省環境廳多年來一直與安大略省各地的新聞媒體合作，向公眾通報霧霾情況。這將繼續是傳播霧霾資訊以及減少霧霾排放措施的重要途徑。今年霧霾季，您可以期待當地的廣播和電視台在其天氣預報中加入霧霾預警和霧霾警報。.

安大略省如何監測PM2.5？行政人員2014-01-16T14:44:36-05:00

安大略省如何監測PM2.5？

2002年，安大略省成為加拿大第一個引進PM監測的省份。_2.5 空氣質量指數。該部門報告了實時PM值。_2.5 使用 Thermo Scientific TEOM 1400AB/SES 直至 2012 年 12 月 31 日。持續 PM_2.5 過去十年，監測技術取得了顯著發展。目前，該網路能夠即時報告PM值。_2.5 安大略省採用Thermo Scientific SHARP 5030測定空氣品質濃度。 SHARP 5030是美國環保署於2009年核准的III級聯邦等效方法。安大略省自2009年起對SHARP監測儀進行評估，並於2012年與加拿大環境部協商後採納了此方法。 2013年，SHARP監測儀部署在安大略省的空氣品質指數（AQI）監測網路中。.

如果接到霧霾警報，我該怎麼辦？行政人員2014-01-16T14:44:42-05:00

如果接到霧霾警報，我該怎麼辦？

以下是一些您可以採取的措施，以幫助保護環境和自身健康：

在家裡：

全年節省用電，方法是調節暖氣或空調溫度，並關閉不使用的燈。.
避免讓你的汽車或其他任何引擎長時間怠速運轉。.
減少汽油動力設備的使用。.
空氣品質差時，請避免割草。.
盡量避免使用油漆、溶劑或清潔劑等油性產品。它們含有揮發性有機化合物（VOCs），是造成霧霾的罪魁禍首之一。.
霧霾嚴重時，尤其是在傍晚，應避免或減少劇烈的戶外體能活動。不要在戶外進行劇烈運動。.
如果可以，請待在涼爽的空調室內。.
按照汽車製造商的保養計畫進行引擎調校和汽車保養檢查。.
限制壁爐或柴爐的燃燒量。燃燒木柴時，只使用乾燥、風乾的木柴。.

在上班：

如果可以，盡量搭乘大眾運輸工具或步行上班。.
如果你開車，不要獨自出行；鼓勵和協助共乘。.
避開交通擁堵。.
考慮召開電話會議，而不是親自前往會議地點。.

和往常一樣，請諮詢醫生以獲取有關如何應對空氣品質不佳的具體醫療建議。.

哪裡可以獲得有關霧霾與健康關係的資訊？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

哪裡可以獲得有關霧霾與健康關係的資訊？

有關霧霾及其對健康的影響，請參閱我們的《霧霾與您的健康》情況說明書，網址為： http://www.airqualityontario.com/press/publications.php.

什麼是霧霾預警應變計畫？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

什麼是霧霾預警應變計畫？

當霧霾濃度達到臨界水準時，應立即採取措施保護社會中最脆弱的群體，並減少可能惡化當地空氣品質的排放。霧霾預警應變計畫是組織、政府機構、公司或市政當局在預測空氣品質惡劣時應採取的書面行動方案。此類計畫應包含告知居民或員工潛在健康威脅的機制，以及可採取的具體措施來降低風險。.

有關製定霧霾預警應對計劃的更多資訊以及您可以採取哪些措施來應對霧霾的其他建議，請參閱該部門的出版物—— 霧霾預警應對：市政行動指南.

往年發布了多少次霧霾預警？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

往年發布了多少次霧霾預警？

該部門監測空氣污染水平，並在極有可能出現大範圍高濃度和持續性霧霾時發布霧霾預警。.

以下是安大略省自 2003 年以來發布的霧霾預警摘要：

自2003年以來，安大略省交通部發布的煙霧預警
年	諮詢數量	總天數
2003	7	19
2004	8	20
2005	15	53
2006	6	17
2007	13	39
2008	8	17
2009	3	5
2010	3	12
2011	5	9
2012	12	30
2013	1	2
2014*	0	0

*截至2014年1月16日。.

安大略省正在採取哪些措施來改善和保護空氣品質？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

安大略省正在採取哪些措施來改善和保護空氣品質？

安大略省致力於為減少排放和改善空氣品質做出貢獻。「安大略省空氣品質計畫」是保護環境和維護公眾健康的綜合策略的一部分。該策略的其他組成部分包括：

清潔駕駛 一項旨在減少氮氧化物（NOx）的計劃_X）以及揮發性有機化合物（VOCs），透過機動車排放測試和煙霧巡邏執法；;
安大略省法規 194/05 – 工業排放：氮氧化物 (NOx)_X）和二氧化硫（SO₂）₂）—該法規規定了從 2006 年開始的行業部門排放上限，並規定了未來幾年（2007 年、2010 年和 2015 年）如何減少這些上限；;
安大略省法規 419/05：空氣污染－地方空氣品質－制定有毒物質的空氣品質標準，以保護當地社區；;
安大略省第397/01號法規：排放交易－限制氮氧化物（NOx）排放_X）和二氧化硫（SO₂）₂）電力業的排放；;
安大略省第127/01號法規：《空氣污染物排放－監測與報告》－旨在引起公眾對環境實踐的關注，從而迫使高排放者改善其行為。 正在播出： 安大略省的線上公眾報告登記系統；;
到 2009 年初，開發更清潔的能源以取代燃煤發電；強制要求發展再生能源；鼓勵提高能源效率和節約能源；包括利用熱電聯產。;
第一階段油氣回收（安大略省法規 455/94）要求汽油設施業者安裝、維護和操作汽油油氣回收系統；汽油揮發性（安大略省法規 271/91，經安大略省法規 45/97 修訂）限制夏季汽油蒸汽壓力；;
乾洗店環境培訓（安大略省法規 323/94）；;
加拿大環境部長理事會（CCME）關於新型和改進型燃氣渦輪機的A-5指南；以及，,
CCME 針對新型商用/工業鍋爐和加熱器的 A-9 指南。.

顆粒物行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

顆粒物

顆粒物（PM）是指空氣中存在的固態或液態顆粒。根據其形成過程中涉及的化合物和過程，PM可分為一次粒狀物和二次粒狀物。一次顆粒物是在排放源以顆粒形式排放的，例如發電廠的煙囪或近期耕作後易受風蝕的田地。二次顆粒物的形成則是由一系列涉及不同前驅氣體的化學和物理反應引起的，例如… 硫氧化物以及氮氧化物，以及氨反應生成硫酸鹽、硝酸鹽和銨鹽顆粒物。.

PM顆粒的大小很大程度上決定了其對環境和健康造成的傷害程度。因此，加拿大環境部將PM顆粒分為不同粒徑：

總顆粒物（TPM）–空氣動力學當量粒徑上限約100微米（µm）的空氣懸浮顆粒物

粒徑小於10微米的粒狀物（PM10）₁₀) – 質量中位數直徑小於 10 微米的空氣顆粒物

粒徑小於2.5微米的粒狀物（PM2.5）_2.5) – 質量中位數直徑小於 2.5 微米的空氣粒狀物

大量研究表明，顆粒物（PM）會加劇氣喘、支氣管炎和肺氣腫等心臟和呼吸系統疾病，並與各種類型的心臟病有關。顆粒物也會對人體健康產生不良影響。植被並導致建築物受損，進而造成能見度下降和區域性霧霾。.

住宅室內空氣中細懸浮微粒（PM2.5）的指導原則行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

住宅室內空氣中細懸浮微粒（PM2.5）的指導原則

背景

細懸浮微粒（PM2.5）_2.5PM2.5 是空氣中所有空氣動力學直徑小於或等於 2.5 μm 的細小顆粒的總稱。它是一種複雜的混合物，其成分在大小、形狀、密度、表面積和化學組成方面各不相同（加拿大衛生部和加拿大環境部，1999；美國環保署，2009）。 1987 年，加拿大衛生部發布了《住宅室內空氣品質暴露指南》，其中規定了 PM2.5 長期和短期暴露的最大可接受範圍。_2.5 在家中。這些指南正在修訂，以反映PM對健康影響和居民暴露的最新科學研究成果。_2.5.

曝露

室內PM_2.5 由室內產生的粒狀物組成_2.5來自吸煙、烹飪、清潔等來源，以及PM_2.5 這是從外部滲入的。加拿大衛生部在加拿大不同城市進行的研究表明，室內平均PM值較高。_2.5濃度低於 15 µg/m³³ 在沒有吸菸者的家庭中，且濃度低於 35 微克/立方公尺。³ 在有吸菸者的家庭（加拿大衛生部，2010）。一般來說，室內PM2.5濃度較高。_2.5 除了有吸煙者的家庭外，室內空氣中的污染物濃度低於直接在房屋外測量的室外污染物濃度。.

健康影響

戶外 PM_2.5, 大量研究表明，區域監測站測得的PM2.5濃度與心血管和呼吸系統疾病的死亡率和發病率密切相關（加拿大衛生部和加拿大環境部，1999；世界衛生組織，2005；美國環保署，2009）。目前尚無公認的室外PM2.5健康影響門檻。_2.5無論暴露發生在室內還是室外，都有證據表明，在目前的暴露水平下都會產生不良健康影響。.

研究室內PM與PM之間關係的研究數量要少得多。_2.5 以及健康。有一些證據顯示室內PM與健康之間存在關聯。_2.5 氣喘兒童的肺功能下降，呼氣一氧化氮（一種氣道發炎標記）水平升高（Koenig et al. 2003; Delfino et al. 2004; Koenig et al. 2005; Trenga et al. 2006）。然而，呼氣一氧化氮的變化與室外PM2.5濃度的相關性更強。_2.5 比室內PM_2.5 （Koenig等人，2003；Koenig等人，2005；Allen等人，2008）。室內PM之間的關聯_2.5 老年人中也觀察到了心血管疾病標記的細微變化（Delfino 等人 2008；Liu 等人 2009；Allen 等人 2011）。.

指導

1987 年暴露指南中製定的可接受的長期和短期暴露範圍應予撤銷，並以這份新的指南取而代之，該指南側重於室內污染源控制，以最大限度地減少 PM 的長期暴露。_2.5 室內。.

室內PM濃度_2.5 應盡可能降低PM濃度，因為PM對健康的影響沒有明顯的閾值。_2.5. 完全消除PM是不可能的。_2.5室內PM2.5的來源包括烹飪、清潔等日常活動產生的污染物，以及居民幾乎無法控制的室外污染物滲入。然而，PM2.5的任何減少都可能對降低PM2.5濃度產生影響。_2.5 預計這將帶來健康益處，尤其對敏感族群，例如患有潛在疾病的人、老年人或兒童。.

重點應放在減少房主和居民能夠一定程度控制的室內污染源。減少接觸室內主要PM污染源的主要建議策略包括：_2.5 是：

戒菸
烹飪時使用爐灶風扇

其他減少室內PM的措施_2.5 措施包括確保通風良好，尤其是在進行可能產生顆粒物的活動時。_2.5. 然而，如果室外PM濃度過高，通風的潛在益處可能會降低或消失。_2.5 濃度很高。也有證據表明，一些管道式空氣過濾器或帶有過濾器的便攜式空氣清淨機可能有助於降低室內顆粒物濃度。_2.5 水平。然而，不同產品的過濾效率差異很大，過濾器作為一種減少室內PM的方法，其有效性也存在很大差異。_2.5 具體情況取決於所用產品及其維護方式。如何正確選擇和維護空氣過濾器和便攜式空氣清淨機不在本文討論範圍。.

上述建議與加拿大衛生部指導房主應專注於識別家中潛在污染源，然後透過源頭控制、改善通風和其他補救措施（例如空氣過濾）來改善空氣品質的指導方針相一致。在大多數情況下，識別潛在污染源比進行室內空氣品質檢測並將測量值與定量指導值進行比較更具參考價值和成本效益。.

定量住宅室內空氣品質指南可供公共衛生和建築專業人員用於解讀室內空氣品質研究結果和製定性能標準。關於室內PM2.5。_2.5, 加拿大衛生部並未提出具體的最大暴露限值，但建議室內PM2.5濃度應控制在一定範圍內。_2.5, 至少要低於PM值_2.5 室外。室內PM濃度高於室外PM濃度顯示室內存在較強的PM來源。_2.5 這個問題需要解決。室內與室外PM2.5濃度的比率。_2.5 因此，這些水平可以用於突出顯示需要採取策略來減少室內產生的PM的情況。_2.5 是必要的，而且會非常有效。建議的PM_2.5 所有家庭都可以採取減排策略。然而，對於那些室內外PM濃度比值較高的家庭來說，這些策略尤其重要。_2.5 濃度高於1的PM2.5，應採取有針對性的措施來識別和消除室內PM2.5污染源。_2.5 是優先事項。.

空氣清淨機和空氣清潔機？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

空氣清淨機和空氣清潔機？

空氣清淨機和空氣清潔機？

在尋找淨化室內空氣的方法時，很容易被各種術語搞糊塗。例如，許多人認為空氣清淨機和空氣清潔器是不同的。但實際上，它們是同一種東西。「空氣清淨機」和「空氣清潔器」這兩個字完全可以互換使用。了解空氣清淨機的定義和運作原理，就能更容易找到適合自己的產品。.

室內空氣污染物及空氣清淨機

在選購室內空氣清淨機之前，最好先了解家中常見的幾種空氣污染物。這些知識能幫助您更輕鬆地找到有效淨化空氣的空氣清淨機。有了對室內空氣污染物的基本了解，您也能更輕鬆地理解目前市面上最受歡迎的空氣清淨機的產品描述。.

揮發性有機化合物

揮發性有機化合物（VOCs）是指許多日常家居用品釋放的氣體或蒸氣。例如，新地毯、油漆、黏合劑、清漆、膠水和消毒劑等都可能釋放VOCs。要確定某種家居產品是否含有VOCs，可以查看其成分錶，例如甲醛、甲苯、氯化物、乙烯和苯。有些空氣清淨機可以過濾空氣中的VOCs，但有些則不具備此功能。如果您非常在意這一點，請選擇具有VOCs過濾功能的空氣清淨機。.

氣味和氣體

有些空氣清淨機可以有效去除室內空氣中的異味和氣體。它們主要依靠活性碳過濾器來實現此功能，而活性碳過濾器幾乎是目前市面上所有空氣清淨機和空氣清潔器的標準配置。這些過濾器利用一種稱為吸附的過程，透過化學反應使這些氣體和異味吸附在活性碳上。常見的異味和氣體包括氣溶膠、菸草煙霧、烹飪氣味、室內殺蟲劑、貓砂和毒素。.

空氣中的粒狀物

大多數人購買空氣清淨機是為了清除家中空氣中的粒狀物。這些顆粒物包括塵蟎、寵物皮屑、花粉、黴菌、植物孢子和真菌等。它們會加劇氣喘和過敏等疾病，因此清除室內空氣中的這些顆粒物至關重要。高效能空氣微粒過濾器（HEPA過濾器）被認為是去除這些粒狀物最有效的方法，這些粒狀物大小不一，但都屬於微觀範疇。.

空氣中顆粒物的平均大小以微米為單位。 1微米等於1/25,000英吋。要被歸類為高效能空氣微粒過濾器（HEPA過濾器），此過濾器必須能夠過濾掉99.97%的細小至0.3微米的空氣微粒。.

粒子型	尺寸
抽煙	0.003微米至0.04微米
細菌	0.3微米至3微米
真菌	0.5微米至5微米
寵物皮屑	0.3微米至100微米
模具	2微米至20微米
花粉	10微米至100微米
塵蟎	10微米至40微米
植物孢子	10微米至70微米

微生物

有些空氣清淨機旨在去除空氣中的微生物。在某些情況下，空氣清淨機也會利用紫外線和其他技術殺死微生物。細菌、病毒、病原體和抗原都屬於微生物。黴菌也屬於這一類。.

空氣過濾器的類型

無論稱之為空氣清淨機或空氣清潔器，這類機器最重要的部件都是空氣濾清器。事實上，大多數空氣清淨機至少包含兩個空氣過濾器，有些甚至使用三到四個不同的過濾器。找到合適的空氣清淨機最簡單的方法之一就是尋找配備特定類型過濾器的型號。為此，您需要了解目前最受歡迎的幾種空氣濾網的主要特性。.

活性碳過濾器

這種類型的過濾器通常不單獨使用，而是經常與高效能空氣微粒過濾器（HEPA過濾器）和其他空氣過濾器配合使用。活性碳利用一種稱為吸附的化學反應來去除空氣中的異味、氣體和蒸氣。這些過濾器中的活性碳經過氧氣處理，使其表面形成數百萬個微小孔隙。由於表面積增大，活性碳過濾器可以長時間有效去除空氣中的異味、氣體和蒸氣。一些活性碳過濾器還可以去除空氣中的揮發性有機化合物（VOCs）。它們含有額外的化學物質，稱為化學吸附劑，可以將VOCs截留在過濾器中或使其無害化。.

離子和臭氧發生器

雖然嚴格來說它們並非過濾器，但離子發生器和臭氧發生器的設計目的相同：去除空氣中的雜質。然而，它們並非過濾雜質，而是使雜質附著在房間周圍的物體表面。這些發生器通常也會釋放臭氧作為副產品。這可能會造成問題，因為臭氧被認為是一種肺部刺激物。.

靜電集塵器

靜電集塵器採用與臭氧產生器和離子產生器相同的原理。主要區別在於，靜電除塵器還能過濾空氣中的雜質。然而，它們也會產生臭氧作為副產品，因此使用這種技術的空氣清淨機可能不適合呼吸系統疾病患者。雜質被收集在可清洗的濾板上，因此無需購買替換濾芯。.

附電介質過濾器

這些過濾器的描述幾乎與靜電除塵器完全相同。主要區別在於，這些過濾器使用的是濾網，而不是濾板。因此，需要定期更換濾網。這些過濾器的一大優點是能夠捕捉極其微小的顆粒。然而，與靜電集塵器、離子產生器和臭氧產生器一樣，它們也會產生臭氧。.

預過濾器

如果較大的粒狀物接觸到敏感的濾網，空氣清淨機和空氣清潔器的工作效率就會降低。因此，絕大多數這類機器都配備了預過濾器。預過濾器的作用是從空氣中過濾掉較大的顆粒物，防止它們進入高效能空氣微粒過濾器（HEPA過濾器）或其他類型的過濾器。預過濾器通常由尼龍編織物或泡沫材料製成，而且大多數情況下可以重複清洗。.

抗菌殺菌過濾器

要徹底清除空氣中大部分細菌和病毒，唯一的方法就是購買一台帶有抗菌或殺菌過濾器的空氣清淨機。有時，這種技術會利用紫外線。有時，則會使用經過特殊處理的HEPA過濾器來殺死細菌、病毒和其他微生物。.

高效能空氣過濾器

為了有效去除空氣中至少 99.97% 的顆粒物，購買配備 HEPA 過濾器的空氣清淨機至關重要。高效能空氣微粒過濾器（HEPA 過濾器）最初是為去除空氣中的放射性塵埃顆粒而設計的。然而，並非所有 HEPA 過濾器的性能都相同。 HEPA 濾網的過濾面積越大，其淨化效果越好。在購買採用 HEPA 技術的空氣清淨機之前，請務必檢查過濾器的過濾面積。.

空氣清淨機的類型

目前市面上主要有三種空氣清淨機：全屋空氣清淨機、全屋空氣濾清器和攜帶式空氣清淨機。.

全屋空氣清淨機

全屋空氣清淨機直接安裝在房屋的暖氣和冷氣系統上。然而，這並非普通房主能夠勝任的工作，必須由專業人員安裝。此外，房屋必須配備強制通風管道才能使此類系統正常運作。還要注意的是，全屋空氣清淨機通常需要直接連接到房屋的電力系統。.

全屋空氣濾清器

另一種一次性淨化家中大部分空氣的方法是使用全屋空氣過濾器，這種過濾器旨在取代標準的爐式過濾器。這種方法雖然有一定的效果，但與其他類型的空氣清淨機相比，它去除的雜質遠不及後者。.

便攜式空氣清淨機

雖然一台便攜式空氣清淨機只能淨化一個房間的空氣，但它的淨化效果非常出色。市面上有許多價格實惠的房間空氣清淨器，所以很多人會在每個房間都放一台。.

不同空氣清淨機的優缺點

空氣清淨機或空氣清潔機的類型	優點	缺點
全屋空氣清淨機	過濾整個房屋的空氣。多種選擇	昂貴的必須由專業人員安裝可能需要接入房屋的電力系統。可能不如手提型號高效
全屋空氣濾清器	方便的方便使用價格低廉	淨化室內空氣的效果不太好。過濾器必須與爐子相容。
便攜式空氣清淨機	輕的袖珍的可能包含腳輪或把手有多種選擇。適合各種預算的選擇	僅淨化單一房間的空氣不同型號之間的品質差異很大。

空氣清淨機功能

如果不了解當今空氣清淨機和空氣清潔器的主要特點，就很難找到合適的選擇。.

能源效率

空氣清淨機的能效可以透過其耗電量（瓦特數）來衡量。如果無法獲得瓦特數訊息，只需將電壓（伏特）乘以電流（安培數）即可。市面上的空氣清淨機功率範圍很廣，從50瓦左右的入門級產品到最高檔位下耗電200瓦甚至更高的型號都有。.

ACH

空氣清淨機的每小時換氣次數（ACH）是一項重要的參數。它反映了空氣清淨機每小時在房間內進行空氣交換的次數。 ACH 值通常會標註在房間大小旁邊。建議選擇 ACH 值在 4 或以上的空氣清淨器，因為它們每小時至少可以進行四次空氣交換。.

CADR

在購買空氣清淨機之前，也要考慮其潔淨空氣輸出率（CADR）。此指標由美國家用電器製造商協會（AHAM）評估。 CADR值越高，空氣清淨機的淨化效果越好。.

濾芯更換

在購買空氣清淨機之前，請務必先了解其濾芯的更換方式，並查詢更換每種濾芯的大致成本。如果不事先做好功課，每年可能要額外花費數百美元購買空氣清淨機的濾芯，這會讓原本看似划算的交易付之東流。.

結論

空氣清淨機和空氣清潔器本質上是一樣的，但這個類別下有許多不同的選擇。為了找到合適的空氣清淨機或空氣清潔器，你需要了解它們的工作原理以及所使用的空氣過濾器的類型。.

空氣污染事實行政人員2014-01-16T14:13:57-05:00

空氣污染事實

公共衛生專家估計，空氣污染每年導致加拿大 16,000 人過早死亡；照此速度，每天有 40 名加拿大人死於與空氣污染相關的疾病。.

室內空氣品質 (IAQ)：在室內工作的人們常會頭痛、呼吸急促、咳嗽或噁心等症狀。然而，很難證明這些症狀與某種特定的室內空氣污染物有關。事實上，建築物內的居住者同時暴露於多種室內空氣污染物中。.
室內空氣品質問題的原因：室內環境－溫度、濕度、光照不足、噪音過大；室內空氣污染物－化學物質、灰塵、黴菌或真菌、細菌、氣體、蒸氣、異味；室外空氣引入不足
我們的肺部健康——以及整體健康——都依賴清潔的空氣。室內外空氣污染會導致健康問題，尤其對肺部疾病患者更是如此。.
室外空氣品質是一個重要的健康問題。空氣污染仍然嚴重威脅我們呼吸的空氣品質。.

空氣污染會刺激、發炎甚至破壞肺組織，削弱肺部對污染物的防禦能力。即使是低濃度的空氣污染也會引發健康問題。.

室外空氣污染可能引起的症狀行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

室外空氣污染可能引起的症狀

眼睛、鼻子和喉嚨感到刺激
喘息、咳嗽和呼吸困難
胸部緊繃感
原有肺部疾病惡化（氣喘, 慢性阻塞性肺病, 等等）和心臟問題

有些人能立即感受到空氣污染的症狀。例如，氣喘患者在霧霾天外出10分鐘後可能會感到呼吸困難。而對於其他人來說，可能需要更長時間才能感受到室外空氣污染對健康的影響。即使你暫時感覺不到任何問題，長期暴露於空氣污染仍然可能損害你的健康。.

哪些人最容易因室外空氣污染而生病？行政人員2014-01-16T14:17:15-05:00

哪些人最容易因室外空氣污染而生病？

孩子們
老年人
患有肺部疾病的人，包括氣喘和慢性阻塞性肺病患者
心臟病患者
免疫系統受損的人

即使是健康的人，在空氣污染嚴重的日子裡也會出現呼吸問題。.

空氣污染是如何進入人體的？行政人員2014-01-16T14:16:28-05:00

空氣污染是如何進入人體的？

人體擁有天然的清潔和修復系統，可以幫助防止較大的顆粒物損傷肺部。肺部呼吸道內壁覆蓋著一層薄薄的黏液，並佈滿了數千根纖毛。如果吸入細菌或顆粒物，黏液會吸附這些細小的污垢，纖毛則像波浪一樣協同運動，將充滿污垢的黏液排出肺部。然後，透過咳嗽、吐出或吞嚥，污垢就被排出體外了。.

某些空氣污染的問題在於，其中的顆粒物太小，無法被人體的黏液和纖毛捕獲和清除。這些微小的污染顆粒會一路飄到肺部的末端（肺泡），並可能造成永久性肺損傷。.

室內空氣污染物：

二氧化碳（CO₂）₂）、菸草煙霧、香水、體味－來自建築物居住者。.
粉塵、玻璃纖維、石棉、氣體（包括甲醛）－均來自建築材料。.
有毒蒸氣、揮發性有機化合物 (VOC)——來自工作場所的清潔劑、溶劑、殺蟲劑、消毒劑、膠水。.
氣體、蒸氣、氣味——家具、地毯和油漆釋放的有害氣體。.
塵蟎－來自地毯、織品、泡棉椅墊。.
微生物污染物、真菌、黴菌、細菌－來自潮濕區域、死水和冷凝水盤。.
臭氧－來自影印機、電動機、靜電空氣清淨機。.

結果：

眼睛、鼻子、喉嚨和皮膚乾燥、發癢,
頭痛，,
疲勞，,
呼吸急促,
過敏和超敏反應,
鼻竇充血,
咳嗽和打噴嚏，,
頭暈和/或
噁心。.

預防措施行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:51-05:00

預防措施

保持家中清潔無塵。.
不要讓任何人在你家吸煙。.
盡量減少潛在污染物的使用，尋找替代品或完全消除它們。.
清理（或報告）任何溢出物或洩漏物。.
如果在會產生污染物的區域工作，請確保污染物來源得到控制（例如在通風櫥下工作、清理溢出物、保持門窗關閉）。.
進屋時請脫鞋。房屋外的土壤可能含有許多你不想帶進屋裡的物質。

室內空氣品質是您家中暖氣和冷氣系統的重要組成部分。畢竟，您可能聽說過空氣品質對健康的影響，尤其對過敏患者而言。誰又沒有體驗過呼吸污濁不堪的空氣帶來的不適呢？但更好的室內空氣品質還有另一個好處：它能讓您的家更舒適宜人。冬天您會感覺更溫暖，夏天您會感覺更涼爽。這意味著您無需頻繁地開啟暖氣或空調。事實上，您或許能夠節省高達 18% 的能源費用，年復一年。空氣過濾系統透過最大限度地減少空氣中的顆粒物，有效淨化您呼吸的空氣。您的肺部當然會感謝更潔淨的空氣，您的暖氣和冷氣系統也會受益匪淺。空氣過濾系統能夠確保暖氣和中央空調系統以最佳效率運行，從而減少日後的維修費用。.

個人人們可以在當地採取行動，減少在家中、路上、工作場所和娛樂場所的能源消耗。他們還可以利用許多實用技巧（包含有趣的事實）和其他資源，幫助他們減少自身造成的空氣污染。.

社群行動也至關重要。組織宣傳活動以促進社區更廣泛地參與，是取得進展的有效途徑。社區及其市政府可以參與規劃更永續的土地利用和交通方式，並制定社區社會行銷計劃，以推動必要的變革。.

產業企業也可以盡自己的一份力，例如採取污染預防措施、應用污染控制技術、提高能源效率、轉向再生能源以及使用更清潔的燃料。許多公司正在努力提升自身的綠色形象，以吸引越來越多具有環保意識的消費者。.

政府行政人員2014-01-16T14:20:05-05:00

政府

清潔、安全的空氣對於保護人民和社區的健康至關重要。作為其改善安大略省空氣品質承諾的一部分，麥堅迪政府發布了兩項新規，要求工業企業減少有害空氣污染物的排放。這兩項法規均兌現了政府在…中所作的承諾。 清潔空氣五點行動計劃, 於 2004 年 6 月 21 日宣布。.

194/05 號法規工業排放－氮氧化物和二氧化硫 針對五點行動計畫的第一點和第二點：

應用難處理的氮氧化物（NO）_x）和二氧化硫（SO₂）₂限制兩種最重要的致霾污染物——污染物——的使用範圍比以往任何時候都更廣，涉及的工業部門也更多。.
拒絕_x 所以₂ 未來幾年限制還會更加嚴格。.

第 419/05 號條例空氣污染 – 地方空氣品質提高省級有害空氣污染物標準可以解決該計劃的第三至第五點：

針對許多有害污染物，包括可能對人類健康構成威脅的致癌物和毒素，制定了新的空氣品質標準，其中一些標準是首次製定。.
透過更新的技術，更了解工業排放情況。.
引入一種更快、基於風險的方法來實施新的空氣品質標準。.

空氣污染的成本行政人員2014-01-16T14:20:43-05:00

空氣污染的成本

根據《科學》雜誌報道，空氣污染會影響「死亡率、住院率和就診次數、氣喘和支氣管炎併發症、誤工天數、活動受限天數以及各種肺部損傷指標」。世界衛生組織對法國、瑞士和奧地利的研究發現，交通污染造成的醫療成本約佔國內生產毛額的1.7%，遠高於治療交通事故傷亡的費用。.

來源： CNN.com “交通污染‘每年導致數千人死亡’“ 2000年9月1日

加拿大安大略省估計，空氣污染每年為該省 1,200 萬居民造成至少 14 兆美元的損失，包括住院治療、急診就診和工人缺勤。.

來源：安大略省醫學協會，《安大略省空氣污染造成的疾病成本》，2000年6月

世界銀行報告稱，在中國——世界上空氣污染最嚴重的國家之一——城市居民因空氣污染導致的死亡和疾病造成的損失估計佔國內生產總值的 5%。.

減少空氣污染的方法行政人員2014-01-16T14:12:11-05:00

減少空氣污染的方法

我們每天都會做出一些有助於減少空氣污染的選擇。以下是您可以採取的一些幫助淨化空氣的建議。.

在家裡

節約能源－離開房間時請關閉電器和燈。.
回收紙張、塑膠、玻璃瓶、紙板和鋁罐。（這有助於節約能源並減少生產排放。）
保持燃木爐和壁爐的良好狀態。您還應該考慮將老舊的燃木爐更換為經美國環保署（EPA）認證的型號。.
在房屋周圍種植落葉樹，夏季可以提供遮蔭，冬季則可以透光。.
購買由低污染甚至零污染設施生產的綠色電力。.
將戶外照明燈連接到定時器或使用太陽能照明。.
用溫水或冷水洗衣服，不要用熱水。.
將熱水器恆溫器調至華氏120度。.
使用低VOC或水性塗料、著色劑、塗料和脫漆劑。.
檢測家中氡氣含量－氡氣是一種無色無味的危險放射性氣體。如果檢測結果顯示氡氣含量超標，這個問題可以經濟有效地解決。.
盡量不要在家中吸煙，尤其是有小孩的家庭。如果您或您的訪客必須吸煙，請在室外吸煙。.

精明消費

購買 ENERGY STAR 產品，包括節能照明和電器。這些都是環保產品。了解更多信息，,
選擇高效率、低污染的車型。.
選擇包裝較少且可重複使用的產品。.
購物時請使用帆布袋，而不是紙袋和塑膠袋。.
為經常使用的裝置購買可充電電池。.

明智駕駛

規劃行程，節約汽油，減少空氣污染。.

保持輪胎氣壓充足且方向正確。.
夏季，請在涼爽的傍晚時分加油，以減少汽油蒸發。避免汽油溢出，也不要加滿油箱。加油後務必旋緊油箱蓋。.
例如，避免在快餐店或銀行的免下車通道排長隊。把車停好，進去辦理業務。.
盡可能搭乘大眾運輸工具、步行或騎自行車。.
定期進行引擎調校和汽車保養檢查（特別是火星塞）。.
使用節能型（EC）機油。.
請向您的雇主諮詢靈活的工作時間表或遠距辦公的可能性。.
請向當地空氣品質管理部門舉報冒煙車輛。.
加入共乘或合乘上班。.

為了您的健康

查看每日空氣品質預報，了解您所在地區的空氣清潔程度或污染程度，以及相關的健康問題。.
為了有效控制氣喘，請清除家中所有室內氣喘誘發因素，並避免接觸室外誘發因素。訪問 www.epa.gov/asthma 了解更多關於氣喘誘因以及如何避免它們的資訊。.
盡量減少日曬。塗抹防曬霜並戴上防紫外線太陽眼鏡。若要了解您所在地區目前的紫外線預報，請造訪[此處插入網址]。 www.epa.gov/sunwise/uvindex.html.

水是最好的東西。.行政人員2014-01-12T15:41:06-05:00

水是最好的東西。.

品達（約西元前522-438年），《奧林匹亞頌歌》

人體含水量為70%，大腦含水量為85%，血液含水量為90%…而我們最重要的器官之一－肝臟，含水量高達96%！由此可見，我們飲用水的品質會對我們的整體健康產生非常顯著的影響。.

補水小貼士

每天至少喝八杯（每杯 8 盎司）水。. 運動量越大，需要補充的水分就越多，以補充流失的體液。.
不要等到口渴才喝水。. 當你感到口渴時，你可能已經失去了兩杯或更多杯的體液。.
全天都要喝大量的水。. 方便快速至關重要，所以無論你是通勤上班、外出辦事還是去海灘玩，都請隨身攜帶一瓶水。上班時，可以在辦公桌上放一瓶水，或是去飲水機喝水，而不是喝咖啡。.
不要用含酒精或咖啡因的飲料代替水。. 咖啡因和酒精都具有利尿作用，會導致排尿增多，流失水分。.
開始運動後，在整個運動過程中都要不斷喝水。. 隨身攜帶一瓶水，並經常停下來喝水。.
不要低估汗水流失的水分量。. 運動後，每減掉一磅體重，就需要喝兩杯水。.
每天以水開始和結束。. 睡眠時身體會流失水分，所以睡前喝一杯水，起床後再喝一杯。.
普通感冒和流感常常會導致脫水。. 在床邊放一大瓶水，這樣你就可以隨時喝水，不用起床。.
天氣炎熱時，保持水分的最佳飲品是涼水，而不是碳酸飲料或運動飲料。. 涼水比溫水更容易被人體吸收，有助於降低過熱的身體溫度。如果你要出門在外或進行戶外活動，務必隨身攜帶一瓶水。.
請確保您的孩子飲用足夠的水。 . 兒童需要補充水分來平衡其他飲料的攝取量，尤其是在進行活動時。在孩子的午餐盒裡裝瓶裝水，而不是果汁或普通汽水，也有助於預防兒童肥胖。.

軟化水中應該使用多少肥皂或洗滌劑？行政人員2014-01-12T15:38:54-05:00

軟化水中應該使用多少肥皂或洗滌劑？

初次使用軟化水進行家務清潔時，最好盡量少用肥皂。如有必要，屋主可以逐漸增加肥皂用量，直到達到理想效果。.

過度使用肥皂的習慣很難改掉。因此，任何與客戶聯繫的人都應該強調咖啡的用量是合適的，而不是像安裝軟水器之前那樣需要一杯甚至更多。.

軟化水可以用於蒸氣熨斗嗎？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

軟化水可以用於蒸氣熨斗嗎？

硬水或軟水都不應該用於蒸氣熨斗。長期使用時，只能使用去離子水或蒸餾水。.

請記住，軟化水並不會去除水中的礦物質。.

家用洗碗機應遵循哪些一般操作程序？行政人員2014-01-12T15:38:02-05:00

家用洗碗機應遵循哪些一般操作程序？

無論如何，都應遵循洗碗機製造商的說明。不過，以下一般性注意事項也可作為補充。.

避免使用泡沫豐富的肥皂或合成洗滌劑，因為產生的泡沫會「抑制」大多數洗碗機用於擦洗的噴淋作用。市面上有許多專為洗碗機配製的洗滌劑，例如Calgonite和Electro-Sol等品牌。這些產品通常不含皂基，而是依靠餐具上的油脂來產生清潔溶液。.

即使使用軟水，餐具上有時仍會出現水漬。在某些情況下，原因可能是洗滌劑用量過多或使用了不合適的材料，如上所述。在其他情況下，則可能是洗碗機裝載過重，導致清潔不徹底。.

另一個常見的造成水漬的原因是烘乾太快。理想情況下，餐具應該先在潮濕的環境中完全瀝乾，這樣含有礦物質的水就能順著流走，而不是蒸發掉。有時，水溫過高，導致水蒸發而不是瀝乾。還有一些情況下，洗碗機蓋在洗衣行程結束時打開，讓冷空氣接觸到餐具。這也會導致水分快速蒸發。.

根據洗碗機的構造，或許可以調整其中一個或兩個因素，從而顯著改善洗滌效果。.

如何去除織物上的鐵漬？行政人員2014-01-12T15:37:47-05:00

如何去除織物上的鐵漬？

只要採取一定的預防措施，大多數可水洗織物上的鐵漬都可以用草酸去除。草酸在大多數藥局都能買到。.

草酸溶液可透過將晶體溶於水來配製。草酸的溶解度僅約10%，因此溶液濃度不能過高。配製溶液時應使用搪瓷或塑膠容器，切勿使用裸露的金屬桶。.

應先在衣邊內側或其他不顯眼處少量測試溶液，因為酸性物質可能會漂白某些染料。如果明顯沒有漂白現象，則可以將整件衣物重複浸入溶液中。浸泡應持續進行，直至鐵漬消失。將衣物浸泡在酸性溶液中。不是受到推崇的。.

污漬去除後，應使用清水徹底沖洗液數次。為確保殘留的酸性物質被中和，應立即以正常用量的肥皂以常規方法洗滌衣物。肥皂中的鹼性物質會去除最後殘留的酸性物質。.

酸性溶液可以倒入下水道，但之後應該用清水徹底沖洗。.

如何測定軟化水中鈉的含量（以毫克為單位）？行政人員2014-12-09T17:12:38-05:00

如何測定軟化水中鈉的含量（以毫克為單位）？

1. 首先，確定天然水中的鈉含量。將水中以碳酸鈣計的鈉含量（以每加侖多少格令為單位）乘以 7.866。這將得出水中的鈉含量（以每公升多少毫克為單位）。.

2. 接下來，確定離子交換軟化後水中額外的鈉含量。此處，將以碳酸鈣表示的水的總硬度（以每加侖多少格令為單位）乘以 7.866。.

3. 將步驟 1 和步驟 2 的結果簡單相加，即可得出軟化水中鈉的含量，單位為毫克/公升。通常認為，正常飲水量為 1 公升（略多於 1 誇脫）。.

事實上，軟化水中的鈉含量與食物中的鈉含量相比微乎其微。.

軟化水中的鈉對限制鹽分攝取的人有害嗎？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

軟化水中的鈉對限制鹽分攝取的人有害嗎？

很大程度上取決於飲食計劃本身的嚴格程度。.

如果患者需要嚴格控制飲食，則不應飲用硬水或軟化水。在這種情況下，他應該飲用去離子水、蒸餾水或已知不含鈉的水，也應使用這種水來烹調食物。這類患者通常需要住院治療。.

醫生在為患者制定無鹽飲食方案時，不應忽視即使是硬水也可能含有相當數量的鈉這一事實。要確定鈉的含量，必須對水進行全面分析。.

如何計算化糞池中的鹽濃度？行政人員2014-01-12T15:36:25-05:00

如何計算化糞池中的鹽濃度？

如果已知水箱的液體容量，則將數值乘以 8.33 即可確定水的磅數。如果液體容量未知，則將以立方英尺為單位的容量乘以 0.80（大約 20% 的空間始終充滿空氣）。然後將該數值乘以 62.33 即可得到水箱中水的磅數。.

將最終數值（水的總磅數）與預期軟水器再生劑量中的鹽磅數進行比較。鹽的磅數不得超過水箱中水總磅數的百分之一。.

軟水器會對化糞池造成有害影響嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:36:10-05:00

軟水器會對化糞池造成有害影響嗎？

軟水器的反沖洗和鹽水排放物可以排入化糞池。但是，化糞池必須正確安裝且容量足夠，才能確保達到理想的效果。化糞池的容量選擇至關重要。雖然許多州建議使用至少500加侖容量的化糞池，但即使是容量較小的化糞池，也能根據軟水器排放的鹽量提供足夠的液體容量。.

許多公共衛生部門都認為軟水器再生廢水可以安全地排放到化糞池中。.

美國公共衛生署在《化糞池操作手冊》中寫道：“家用軟水器產生的廢鹽水不會對化糞池的運行產生不利影響，但可能會略微縮短安裝在結構性粘土土壤中的處理場的使用壽命。”

由此可見，必須考慮處置場所在土壤的種類。.

某些類型土壤中長期沉積高濃度的鈉鹽會導致土壤滲透性下降。此時，土壤無法吸收和輸送廢水，導致滲濾場的吸收能力逐漸降低。.

另一方面，軟水器釋放的鈣離子和鎂離子可能會疏通土壤，逆轉鈉鹽的堵塞作用。.

迄今為止，還沒有關於配水場因軟水器再生廢液而無法吸收鈉鹽的報告。.

如果對鈉廢液對配水區的影響有嚴重疑慮，可以將鹽水排放到乾井中。通常情況下，乾井（一個填滿粗礫石的坑）可以使用多年。但是，只有在極少數情況下才需要使用乾井。.

在排放到鹽水箱可能有問題的情況下，使用全自動軟水器具有一定的優勢。這些軟水器可以設定為頻繁補充鹽，但每次補充的鹽量較少。.

全自動軟水器每次充水需要40到80加侖的水。由於運行時間大約需要一個小時，因此水流量較低。此外，軟水過程通常設定在午夜到凌晨5點之間進行，這段時間家庭用水量很少或幾乎沒有用水。在這種情況下，軟水器對化糞池容量的負擔遠小於自動洗碗機、洗衣機或馬桶等用水設備。.

軟水能做出更清澈的冰塊嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:35:46-05:00

軟水能做出更清澈的冰塊嗎？

事實上，去除水中的鈣和鎂對家庭自製冰塊的品質影響甚微。原因在於，軟化水並不會降低水中礦物質的總濃度。.

例如，軟水器如果能去除水中的沉澱物、鐵和錳，就能幫助生產出更乾淨的冰。.

當然，過濾器有助於去除製冰用水中的鐵、濁度、異味和異味。.

在典型的餐廳製冰設備中，使用聚磷酸鹽是一種經濟實惠的水處理方法。聚磷酸鹽能使水中的礦物質分散開來，從而最大限度地減少冰塊的渾濁現象。.

如果添加濃度合適，聚磷酸鹽還能控製製冰機中的水垢形成和腐蝕。建議添加濃度約 5 ppm 以防止水垢形成，添加濃度約 10 ppm 可同時防止水垢形成和控制腐蝕。.

軟化水應該用來澆灌室內植物，還是用來灑水澆灌花園或草坪？行政人員2014-01-12T15:35:25-05:00

軟化水應該用來澆灌室內植物，還是用來灑水澆灌花園或草坪？

當水中硬度礦物質含量僅為中等水平（低於 10 gpg）時，鈉濃度是否足以對植物造成嚴重危害還很難說。.

大多數室內植物需要特定的土壤條件才能健康生長。許多植物在微酸性土壤中生長最佳。如果軟化水的硬度很高，那麼軟水中高濃度的鈉很可能對植物有害。.

對於戶外澆灌而言，使用軟化水首先是一種浪費。此外，在硬度礦物質濃度較高的地方，軟化水中的鈉鹽會抑制植物生長，甚至可能導致草坪死亡。.

離子交換軟水器能否去除水中的放射性污染物？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

離子交換軟水器能否去除水中的放射性污染物？

是的，軟水器可以去除水中可能存在的約 80-90% 的放射性物質。.

然而，基於以下幾個重要原因，不應使用軟水器來達到此目的。 (1) 它只能去除陽離子型放射性物質。.

（2）此外，此方法只能部分去除這些污染物（80-90%）。現在，根據可能的初始濃度，即使去除99%的放射性物質，也可能無法使水達到安全飲用標準。.

（3）此外，還存在如何將放射性離子排入污水系統的問題。這即使不是不可能，也是一項艱鉅的任務。.

由於處置風險，不建議將放射性離子排放到污水系統中。使用後掩埋受污染的軟水器也是不可接受的。用於去除水中放射性物質的設備應運送到集中處置場進行妥善處理。.

鑑於軟化器的局限性，不建議使用軟化器進行可靠、有效的去污。.

由於有些放射性物質是陰離子，而有些是陽離子，因此需要使用強酸性陽離子樹脂和強鹼性陰離子樹脂的脫鹽裝置。.

小型「一次性」除垢器可用於緊急情況。這類設備是解決此問題的最令人滿意的方案。.

軟水會影響加濕器的運作嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:34:50-05:00

軟水會影響加濕器的運作嗎？

軟水有助於加濕器的維護。.

硬水蒸發後，殘留的礦物質會形成堅硬的水垢，通常需要一些強力處理（例如鑿除或酸洗）才能去除。而使用軟水時，殘留物通常較軟，一般只需用水沖洗或用刷子刷洗表面即可去除。.

需要記住的一點是：軟化水並不會減少水中礦物質的總量；離子交換軟化只是將鈣和鎂礦物質轉化為鈉礦物質。.

家用最常見的加濕器有一個敞開式水盤、一根連接水源的小管和一個浮球閥。當水蒸發時，浮球閥打開，讓補充的水流入水盤。.

這種類型的裝置遲早會被流入的水沉積的礦物質填滿。.

如果在加濕器中使用軟水，定期用新鮮軟水沖洗可以降低礦物質濃度，並且該設備可以令人滿意地運作。.

軟水對熱帶魚安全嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:34:31-05:00

軟水對熱帶魚安全嗎？

是的，軟水對大多數熱帶魚來說都是合適的。據多位權威人士稱，無論是完全軟化的水還是市政軟化水，用於水族箱都不會產生任何不良或毒性影響。.

從硬水更換為軟水時，必須循序漸進地用新水取代舊水。這符合熱帶魚適應任何環境變化的基本原則。這適用於水溫、pH值、食物以及水的硬度。劇烈的變化當然會對這些魚類脆弱的生理系統造成衝擊，甚至導致死亡。.

最好每週更換約四分之一的魚缸水，換成軟水。最終，魚缸裡的水基本上將是軟水，魚類也不會因為換水而受到任何不良影響。.

飲用經過離子交換軟化的水，我的家人是否會缺乏維持健康所必需的礦物質？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

飲用經過離子交換軟化的水，我的家人是否會缺乏維持健康所必需的礦物質？

不。人體主要透過食用食物而非飲水來獲取維持健康所需的礦物質。.

人體可能會吸收或利用水中的礦物質，但在大多數情況下，吸收量並不顯著。.

要從水中攝取足夠的礦物質，人們每天需要喝很多加侖的水。一般來說，無論是高礦物質含量的水或完全軟化的水，都不能算是礦物質的重要來源。相較之下，一加侖牛奶所含的礦物質相當於一浴缸普通井水。.

軟化水中含有多少鈉？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

軟化水中含有多少鈉？

這取決於您家水的硬度，但平均而言，您攝取的鈉中只有不到 3% 來自飲用軟化水。據估計，一般人每天從各種來源攝取相當於兩到三茶匙鹽的鈉。假設每天從食物中攝取 5 克（5000 毫克）鈉，並飲用三誇脫水（例如咖啡、茶、果汁和飲用水），那麼家用軟水過程中產生的鈉 (Na+) 含量與許多富含鈉的食物的每日攝入量相比微乎其微。計算額外鈉含量的公式如下：每誇脫軟化水中鈉的毫克數 = 水硬度（格令）× 7.5 毫克鈉/格令硬度.

鈉（氯化物）和鉀（氯化物）有什麼不同？行政人員2014-01-12T15:28:14-05:00

鈉（氯化物）和鉀（氯化物）有什麼不同？

兩者作用相同。它們在軟水再生過程中都會補充軟化樹脂上的鈣和鎂。使用氯化鈉時，軟水在使用過程中會添加鈉；使用氯化鉀時，軟水會添加鉀。醫生建議從飲用水中去除鈉源的人通常使用氯化鉀。但對於一些腎臟或其他腎臟疾病患者來說，鉀可能會加重病情。大多數健康人（>97%）可以安全使用氯化鈉，而且氯化鈉價格更低。如有任何疑問，請諮詢醫生。.

我可以直接在井水或蓄水池裡放入軟鹽來獲得軟水嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:28:01-05:00

我可以直接在井水或蓄水池裡放入軟鹽來獲得軟水嗎？

不，要軟化水，你需要一台軟水機。軟水機鹽水箱裡的鹽並不能直接軟化水，而是用來再生軟水機裡的樹脂珠。這些樹脂珠通過去除硬水中的離子（鈣、鎂和鐵）來軟化井水。.

你的食鹽含有化學物質嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:27:43-05:00

你的食鹽含有化學物質嗎？

部分產品含有添加劑（主要是為了防止變硬或添加碘），而有些則不含。請參閱產品包裝或索取技術資料表。.

軟水鹽對動物有任何害處嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:27:30-05:00

軟水鹽對動物有任何害處嗎？

與食品一樣，軟水鹽不適用於人類或動物飼料。其顆粒大小不適合小型動物。此外，軟水鹽可能含有不適合動物飼料的添加劑。.

軟水鹽可以用來製作浴鹽嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:27:19-05:00

軟水鹽可以用來製作浴鹽嗎？

建議僅使用太陽能鹽。鹽的最佳粒徑為中等。目前市面上用於軟化水的太陽能鹽多為粗粒或特粗粒，粒徑較大。.

除了保持鹽位在一半之外，在加註軟水器水量方面還有其他好的經驗法則嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:27:00-05:00

除了保持鹽位在一半之外，在加註軟水器水量方面還有其他好的經驗法則嗎？

鬆動鹽罐邊緣可能黏附的結塊鹽粒，確保將大塊鹽粒敲碎。將鹽均勻地舖在鹽罐內。確保水位適宜，以確保鹽罐的最佳運作。.

在軟水器水箱加水時，水位應該高於還是低於鹽位？行政人員2014-01-12T15:26:45-05:00

在軟水器水箱加水時，水位應該高於還是低於鹽位？

水位應根據使用手冊或水處理技術人員的建議進行設定。除非使用手冊或水處理技術人員另有指示，否則鹽位應保持在水位以上至少 3 至 4 英吋處。.

在軟水器中混合不同種類的鹽有害嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:26:26-05:00

在軟水器中混合不同種類的鹽有害嗎？

一般來說，不建議混用軟水器；但是，某些軟水器是專為特定軟水產品設計的，使用其他產品可能無法正常運作。例如，不建議在櫃式軟水器中使用岩鹽，因為這類軟水器不易清潔，而岩鹽會留下不溶性殘留物，也可能造成堵塞。同樣，也不建議混合使用粗細不同的軟水產品（例如顆粒狀軟水鹽和岩鹽），因為這樣做也可能導致堵塞。為了避免這些問題，建議您在添加另一種軟水鹽之前，先讓軟水器中的一種軟水鹽完全用完（或幾乎用完）。.

軟化鹽可以用於食品加工嗎，例如罐頭食品或肉類包裝？行政人員2014-01-12T15:26:12-05:00

軟化鹽可以用於食品加工嗎，例如罐頭食品或肉類包裝？

雖然軟水顆粒可能由食品級鹽製成，但顆粒壓製過程本身並不符合「食品級」標準。因此，不建議將軟水顆粒直接用於食品加工。基於同樣的原因，其他軟水鹽產品，如太陽鹽、岩鹽和鹽塊，也不建議用於食品加工。.

塊狀鹽和顆粒狀鹽有什麼差別？行政人員2014-01-12T15:25:54-05:00

塊狀鹽和顆粒狀鹽有什麼差別？

是的，從物理角度來看，塊狀鹽的厚度均勻，約為 1/4 英寸，長度和寬度略有不同。顆粒狀鹽呈枕頭狀或潤喉糖狀，厚度也可能有所不同。從化學純度和功能性角度來看，兩者幾乎沒有區別，儘管塊狀鹽可能略微耐用一些。.

我可以在冰淇淋機裡使用軟水鹽嗎？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

我可以在冰淇淋機裡使用軟水鹽嗎？

鹽能降低水的冰點，因此撒在冰上可以達到冰點以下的溫度。任何類型的鹽，包括食鹽，都可以用於此目的。由於鹽最終會融化冰，所以最好使用粗鹽，因為它溶解得更慢。岩鹽或太陽能軟水鹽顆粒通常較粗，非常適合用於此目的。顆粒狀鹽和Sun Gems®鹽顆粒太粗，不宜使用。.

有些鹽比其他鹽更純淨嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:25:23-05:00

有些鹽比其他鹽更純淨嗎？

是的。蒸發鹽的純度範圍為99.7%至99.991%（以TP3T計），均為氯化鈉。太陽鹽的純度通常為99.6%至99.81%（以TP3T計），均為氯化鈉。用於水處理的岩鹽的純度可能在95%至98.51%以上（以TP3T計），具體取決於鹽的來源。.

我可以把軟水器裡的鹽水排放到草坪上嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:25:00-05:00

我可以把軟水器裡的鹽水排放到草坪上嗎？

應避免直接排放氯化鈉或氯化鉀鹽水。鹽水會改變草類（植物）賴以調節水分需求的滲透壓。水分供應失衡會導致草坪枯黃，最終死亡。可使用20份水兌1份鹽水的稀釋比例。.

軟水器排出的鹽水會損害我的化糞池系統嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:24:45-05:00

軟水器排出的鹽水會損害我的化糞池系統嗎？

水質協會的研究表明，只要化糞池位置正確且擁有足夠的滲濾場，軟水器排放的鹽水就不會對其運作造成任何影響。這主要是由於稀釋作用和滲濾場的排水作用。.

我的軟水器鹽水箱裡有棕色/黑色的油狀物。這是鹽造成的嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:23:19-05:00

我的軟水器鹽水箱裡有棕色/黑色的油狀物。這是鹽造成的嗎？

隨著時間的推移，鹽或供水中的不溶於水的物質可能會在鹽罐中積聚。這些不溶於水的物質可能呈現棕色或黑色污泥狀，也可能呈現油狀。它通常是鹽中天然礦物包裹體的產物，且一般為無機物。.

如何判斷我的軟水器中的樹脂是否需要更換？行政人員2014-01-12T15:23:03-05:00

如何判斷我的軟水器中的樹脂是否需要更換？

當排除了所有其他可能的原因，例如所用鹽的問題和/或軟水器部件的基本機械故障，而水仍然不夠軟時，可能就需要考慮更換樹脂或軟水器了。經驗表明，大多數離子交換樹脂的使用壽命為20至25年，取決於用水量。.

我知道除了鹽以外，還有其他東西可以修復我的軟水器。那是什麼呢？行政人員2014-01-12T15:22:38-05:00

我知道除了鹽以外，還有其他東西可以修復我的軟水器。那是什麼呢？

氯化鉀可用於離子交換樹脂的再生。它是一種特殊的鹽，在離子交換過程中使用鉀離子而非鈉離子。氯化鉀價格較高。.

我可以在軟水器中使用除冰鹽嗎？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

我可以在軟水器中使用除冰鹽嗎？

我們不建議這樣做。請注意，除冰鹽含有較多的不溶物，需要更頻繁地清理鹽水箱。此外，除冰鹽顆粒較小，不適合軟水器使用。.

如果我把你們的軟水鹽撒在車道上除冰，會不會對混凝土造成傷害？行政人員2014-01-12T15:21:54-05:00

如果我把你們的軟水鹽撒在車道上除冰，會不會對混凝土造成傷害？

最佳做法是購買專為除雪除冰而設計的產品，並嚴格按照包裝上的使用說明進行操作。太陽鹽和岩鹽可用於清除混凝土人行道、停車場和瀝青路面上的積雪和冰。由於顆粒較大，不建議使用顆粒狀或添加了除鐵劑的顆粒狀產品。.

使用方法：清除多餘積雪。將每平方碼 1/2 至 1 杯的融雪劑均勻撒在冰面和壓實的積雪表面。用量和融雪效果取決於冰面和壓實積雪的溫度和厚度。根據需要重複使用。冰雪融化後，清除路面上的冰雪泥漿和多餘的融雪劑，以維護混凝土的良好狀態。注意：所有融雪劑的作用原理都是降低水的冰點。這會導致融化的冰雪更頻繁地經歷凍融循環，從而造成混凝土剝落（表面起皮）。因此，僅適用於已正確鋪設、保養和密封的含氣混凝土。為減少凍融循環和潛在損害的可能性，應及時清除形成的冰雪泥漿。請勿用於多孔或養護不當的混凝土、使用時間少於一年的混凝土、木材或其他多孔材料。與任何融雪劑一樣，當除冰表面附近有草坪和植被時，應格外小心，因為過量使用可能會造成損害。使用本產品風險自負。.

我最近換了你們的產品，現在衣服洗得沒以前那麼乾淨了？行政人員2014-01-12T15:21:36-05:00

我最近換了你們的產品，現在衣服洗得沒以前那麼乾淨了？

除非軟水器發生故障，或鹽結塊或糊化，離子交換樹脂尚未再生，否則這種變化不會降低洗滌能力。.

我往軟水器裡加了鹽，但還是沒有軟水。這是怎麼回事？行政人員2014-01-12T15:21:21-05:00

我往軟水器裡加了鹽，但還是沒有軟水。這是怎麼回事？

可能是鹽的停留時間過短，也就是說，鹽被倒入儲鹽罐後，軟水器的再生循環立即啟動。也可能是軟水器故障，或鹽橋或鹽糊化導致鹽水生成減少或消失。.

我的軟水器裡鹽溶解得太快了。為什麼？行政人員2014-01-12T15:21:01-05:00

我的軟水器裡鹽溶解得太快了。為什麼？

這個問題通常出現在從一種軟水鹽換成另一種軟水鹽時，例如從顆粒狀軟水鹽換成太陽能軟水鹽。您遇到的情況可能與兩種產品的堆積密度不同有關。晶體越緊密排列，體積就越小。這會讓人感覺鹽溶解得太快。此外，如果您的軟水機初始水位是按照顆粒狀軟水鹽設定的，那麼對於太陽能軟水鹽來說，水位可能過高（即水箱中水量過多，溶解的鹽也過多），因此可能需要降低水位。請遵循軟水機製造商的說明。.

實際上，鹽的溶解量只能達到飽和鹽水（26.41TP³T，重量比）的程度。使用哪種鹽並不重要。當鹽水達到鹽的飽和狀態時，就無法再溶解更多的鹽了。因此，儘管外觀可能有所不同，但無論使用何種鹽產品或形態，鹽的用量都是相同的。.

我的鹽不溶解，怎麼辦？行政人員2014-01-12T15:20:45-05:00

我的鹽不溶解，怎麼辦？

檢查水面處的鹽，看是否形成固體塊（稱為“鹽橋”），或者細小的“糊狀”鹽是否沉在水箱底部（稱為“鹽泥”）。如果是鹽橋，小心地將其弄碎，使其落入下方的水中。如果是鹽泥，取出完好的鹽粒，舀出「糊狀」鹽，然後重新裝入完好的鹽粒。.

如果在添加新鹽時鹽罐是空的，請檢查水箱內的水位。如果水位低於正常值，可能是浮子卡在了內部的側柱裡。打開蓋子，檢查浮子機構是否運作順暢。如果運作不暢，請聯絡軟水機製造商的售後服務部門，安排到府維修。.

我的水聞起來像臭雞蛋。有什麼鹽可以去除這種味道嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:20:30-05:00

我的水聞起來像臭雞蛋。有什麼鹽可以去除這種味道嗎？

臭雞蛋味通常與供水中可能存在的硫化氫氣體有關。鹽並不能去除這種氣味或氣體。您必須採取其他措施來去除氣體。.

我可以在軟水機裡使用軟水塊嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:20:15-05:00

我可以在軟水機裡使用軟水塊嗎？

通常情況下，鹽塊用於專門設計的儲鹽罐中。為了確保正常運行，儲鹽罐內的水位會升高，使鹽塊始終浸沒在水中，從而最大限度地形成鹽水。如果您想改用鹽塊，可能需要重新設定儲鹽罐內的水位。.

我買的這些顆粒看起來和以前買的略微有些變色。它們髒了嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:19:59-05:00

我買的這些顆粒看起來和以前買的略微有些變色。它們髒了嗎？

顆粒可以由壓實的蒸發鹽或壓實的太陽鹽製成。後者通常顏色略深。.

我在太陽能鹽裡發現了一些黑色小顆粒。這會損壞我的軟水器嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:19:30-05:00

我在太陽能鹽裡發現了一些黑色小顆粒。這會損壞我的軟水器嗎？

不，太陽鹽是一種透過蒸發海水製成的天然產品。它的收穫方式很像農作物，因此可能含有微小的雜質，例如泥土、小卵石和其他天然物質。.

由於這些夾雜物的密度與鹽罐底部的鹽水密度不同，它們通常會留在鹽罐中。密度較低的物質，如果在再生過程中隨鹽水一起進入樹脂，通常會在再生後的沖洗循環中從樹脂中沖洗掉。.

我應該為軟水器購買哪種鹽？行政人員2014-01-12T15:19:06-05:00

我應該為軟水器購買哪種鹽？

最適合特定軟水機的鹽的類型會根據軟水機的設計而有所不同。通常，櫃式一體式軟水機需要低水不溶物含量的鹽，而帶有獨立儲鹽罐的並排式軟水機更易於清潔，因此在選擇鹽產品方面有更大的靈活性。不過，我們通常會建議使用高純度的顆粒狀鹽。.

我使用的是添加了除鐵劑的顆粒清潔劑，但我的馬桶、水槽和衣物上仍然有銹漬。為什麼沒有效果？行政人員2014-01-12T15:18:50-05:00

我使用的是添加了除鐵劑的顆粒清潔劑，但我的馬桶、水槽和衣物上仍然有銹漬。為什麼沒有效果？

使用除鐵添加劑去除水中的鐵含量僅限於鐵含量低於 2 ppm（百萬分之二）的水。如果鐵含量較高，則應定期使用強效單劑量清潔劑（通常可在水處理設備經銷商或五金行購買）。如果您的水中鐵含量很高，則可能需要安裝專用除鐵過濾器。.

我應該清理一下鹽水箱嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:18:33-05:00

我應該清理一下鹽水箱嗎？

除非所用鹽產品含有大量水不溶性物質，或出現嚴重故障（例如架橋），否則通常無需清理鹽水箱。有些人選擇每年讓軟水器中的鹽完全溶解一次，以便進行目視檢查，確保沒有積聚物。如果出現積聚物，則應將其清理乾淨，以防止軟水器故障。但是，年度檢查並非強制性要求。.

我家用的是軟水機，用的是太陽能鹽。太陽能鹽會黏在一起，有時候我得用棍子把它敲開。有什麼辦法可以防止這種情況發生嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:18:11-05:00

我家用的是軟水機，用的是太陽能鹽。太陽能鹽會黏在一起，有時候我得用棍子把它敲開。有什麼辦法可以防止這種情況發生嗎？

如果這種情況經常發生，您可以透過限制添加到「鹽罐」中的鹽量來減少這種傾向（例如，如果目前添加 4 袋 40 磅的鹽，則減少到 2 袋）。.

我軟水器裡的鹽結成了一大塊，該怎麼辦？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

我軟水器裡的鹽結成了一大塊，該怎麼辦？

這種被稱為「架橋」或「糊狀」的狀況需要人工打散鹽塊，以促進鹽水流動。一般來說，動手能力強的人可以完成這項工作，但也可以聯絡水處理設備經銷商安排上門服務。.

商店裡岩鹽比較便宜。它能用在我的軟水器裡嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:17:55-05:00

商店裡岩鹽比較便宜。它能用在我的軟水器裡嗎？

岩鹽可以用於軟水器；但是，由於岩鹽中含有較高比例的水不溶物，因此建議僅在使用者願意定期清理鹽水箱的情況下使用。對於一般的家用軟水器，每年可能需要清理 2 到 3 次。.

我應該用顆粒燃料還是太陽能鹽？行政人員2014-01-12T15:16:39-05:00

我應該用顆粒燃料還是太陽能鹽？

由於太陽能鹽比（蒸發鹽）顆粒含有略多的水不溶物，因此應考慮鹽的用量、軟水器的清潔頻率和軟水器的設計。如果鹽的用量較少，兩種產品或許可以互換使用。如果鹽的用量較大，使用太陽能鹽時水不溶物會更快積累，因此需要更頻繁地清潔鹽水箱/儲水箱。清潔鹽水箱可能是一項比較麻煩的工作。.

我在商店裡看到的軟水鹽種類有什麼不同？行政人員2014-01-12T15:16:05-05:00

我在商店裡看到的軟水鹽種類有什麼不同？

零售店裡常見的鹽有三種：岩鹽、太陽鹽（結晶）和蒸發鹽（顆粒）。.

岩鹽是一種天然礦物，透過傳統採礦方法從地下鹽礦床中提取。其化學純度變化較大，氯化鈉含量在98%至99%之間。其水不溶物含量約為0.5%至1.5%，主要成分為硫酸鈣這種雜質。.

太陽鹽是一種天然產品，透過蒸發海水或內陸鹽水源獲得。其氯化鈉含量為99.5%或更高，水不溶物含量低於0.03%。太陽鹽最常見的銷售形式是晶體，但也可能以壓縮顆粒或塊狀出售。.

蒸發鹽的生產方法是：首先對地下層狀鹽礦進行溶液開採，將鹽溶解成鹽水，然後利用天然氣或煤炭等能源蒸發水分。蒸發鹽（以壓實顆粒、片狀鹽（俗稱鹽塊）或鹽塊的形式存在）的氯化鈉含量範圍為99.6%至99.99%。水不溶物含量通常低於0.01%。.

我應該多久往軟水器裡加一次鹽？行政人員2014-01-12T15:14:56-05:00

我應該多久往軟水器裡加一次鹽？

軟水機再生次數越多，需要添加鹽分的頻率就越高。一般來說，每月檢查一次軟水機比較適合。為了保持水質始終柔軟，請始終保持鹽位至少在半滿狀態，但切勿過度添加。.

什麼是橋接？行政人員2014-01-12T15:14:30-05:00

什麼是橋接？

鹽箱中有時會出現鹽橋現象，鹽粒相互黏連形成“橋樑”，阻礙其與箱內水接觸。您可以使用100%水溶性顆粒產品來消除鹽橋現象。.

什麼是雪橇犬訓練？我為什麼要避免它？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

什麼是雪橇犬訓練？我為什麼要避免它？

有時，如果您使用顆粒狀或塊狀的鹽，由於顆粒或塊狀鹽過於鬆散，它們可能會分解成細小的蒸發鹽晶體——類似於食鹽。這些晶體可能會相互粘連，在鹽水箱中形成厚厚的塊狀物。這種粘連可能會中斷鹽水的產生——而鹽水是軟水器中樹脂珠恢復活力的關鍵。沒有鹽水，軟水器就無法產生軟水。.

鹽分會進入我的飲用水嗎？行政人員2014-01-12T15:12:20-05:00

鹽分會進入我的飲用水嗎？

不。軟水器中鹽的唯一作用是再生樹脂珠，這些樹脂珠才是真正去除水中硬度的物質。這種再生過程不會讓水嘗起來有鹹味，也不會顯著增加鈉的攝取量。.

什麼是TDS？行政人員2013-10-22T15:23:18-05:00

什麼是TDS？

總溶解固體（TDS）是指溶解在一定體積水中的可移動帶電離子的總量，包括礦物質、鹽類或金屬，單位為毫克/公升（mg/L），也稱為百萬分之幾（ppm）。 TDS與水的純度和水淨化系統的品質直接相關，並對所有消耗、生活在水中或使用水的生物（無論是有機物還是無機物）產生影響，無論好壞。.

有趣的水知識行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

有趣的水知識

美國自來水公司在短短 16 小時內生產的飲用水量，就相當於石油業一年的石油產量。.

當我們使用水時，通常會在水中添加污染物，例如肥皂、食物和化學品，這些污染物必須在水再次使用之前去除。.

地球表面近四分之三被水覆蓋，但只有不到 1% 的水適合用常規水處理方法飲用。.

冰塊之所以能漂浮，是因為冰的密度比水小。水結冰時會形成類似網格的結構，這種結構會產生浮力，使冰能夠漂浮。.

飲用水的硬度是由鈣和鎂這兩種無毒的天然礦物質造成的。過高的硬度會導致肥皂難以起泡，餐具上留下水漬，並降低水流速度。.

水是天然的健康飲品。它不含脂肪、不含卡路里、不含膽固醇。.

因為成人體內60%的成分是水，所以必須補充經由呼吸、流汗和排泄流失的水分。對大多數人來說，這相當於每天大約需要8杯（2公升）水。我們不僅可以透過飲水來補充水分，還可以透過食物和其他飲料來補充水分。.

透過蒸發、凝結、降水和滲透等過程——即水循環——地球上的水總量保持不變。然而，隨著需求的持續成長，淡水資源卻不斷減少。.

資料來源：美國自來水廠協會（AWWA），2010年

水質、淨化和過濾的歷史行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:52-05:00

水質、淨化和過濾的歷史

水是地球生命最重要的組成部分之一，然而我們中的許多人卻對此習以為常。沒有水，地球上的生命將不復存在。植物、動物和人類都需要水。從某種意義上說，水是生命的電池。然而，如果水質不潔淨，無法飲用，也會對人體造成危害。.

水的存在本身就具有雙重性……它既是生命的賦予者，也是生命的奪走者。正因如此，自人類誕生之初，人們就一直在探索獲取純淨水的方法。考古證據表明，早在史前時代，人們就開始嘗試淨化水，使其口感更佳。.

早期人類認為水的純淨度取決於味道；如果水嘗起來令人愉悅，那麼它就是純淨的。因此，古代的淨水方法是在水中添加草藥或鮮花，但這顯然不是真正的淨水方法，也無法阻止人們繼續尋找更純淨的水源。.

西元前2000年，出現了關於醫學問題的梵文文獻，稱為《醫學大全》。 蘇斯魯塔本集. 《蘇斯魯塔本集》宣稱：“不潔淨的水可以通過在火上煮沸、在陽光下加熱、或將加熱的鐵浸入其中來淨化，也可以通過沙子和粗礫石過濾，然後使其冷卻來淨化。”

在底比斯阿蒙霍特普二世陵墓的牆壁上發現了銘文。銘文描繪了埃及人淨化水的方法，即透過一系列燈芯虹吸管抽取水。該銘文的年代經鑑定為西元前1450年。.

聖經中甚至記載了可能用於淨化水的方法。在出埃及記15:22-27中，摩西和以色列人來到瑪拉，發現那裡的水是苦的。摩西被指引到一棵樹前，被告知要將樹放在瑪拉的水中。摩西照做了，瑪拉的水從此變得甘甜。雖然我們不清楚這棵樹是什麼樹，也不清楚當時是否使用了某種過濾方法，但這些證據至少顯示當時人們關注水質問題。.

另一種早期的濾水方法是由著名的古希臘醫生希波克拉底在西元前3世紀發明的。他發現煮沸的水無法去除懸浮固體，於是用布袋在煮沸後過濾水。這種方法後來被稱為「希波克拉底袖套」。“

1627年，法蘭西斯·培根爵士彙編了10項實驗。 十個世紀的自然史. 他讀到一篇關於用沙子過濾海水並成功淨化海水的實驗報告後，便相信水也可以透過沙子過濾。.

17世紀末，義大利醫生盧卡斯·安東尼烏斯·波提烏斯（Lucas Antonius Portius）撰寫了關於多重砂濾法的文章。此方法包含三對砂濾器，分別採用向下和向上流動的方式。.

在這些發現之後，人們開發了沙濾器和雨水蓄水池。 1703年，法國科學家拉伊爾提議，所有家庭都應該配備雨水蓄水池和沙濾器。 100年後，蘇格蘭佩斯利建成了第一座市政水處理廠。.

在 20 世紀和 21 世紀，水質變得更加重要，人們開發了許多水淨化和過濾方法。.

參考：
1. 國家環境服務中心： http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/ndwc/ndwc_DWH_1.html
2.《水質與處理：公共供水手冊》。美國自來水廠協會（AWWA）。 1971年。.

水是什麼？行政人員2026-04-04T12:43:53-05:00

水是什麼？

水 (H₂水（O）對地球上的生命至關重要，地球表面超過三分之二是由固態、氣態和液態的水組成的——水是地球上唯一天然存在於所有三種物理狀態的化合物。.

液態水的特性有助於溶解分子，進而促進化學反應的發生，為生命創造適當的環境。代謝物和營養物質等重要物質能夠在液態水中進行微觀和宏觀的運輸。水還能大大幫助酵素催化化學反應，對生命至關重要。.

純水的冰點為 0°C (32°F)，沸點為 100°C (212°F)，但雜質會改變這些數值。液態水如此寬廣的溫度範圍也有助於地球上生命的延續，因為正常的天氣波動不會對這個大部分被水覆蓋的星球造成災難性的影響。.

人體也主要由水構成，我們依賴水來種植食物和生存。全球現代化工業基礎設施需要水用於各種用途，從冷卻機器到運輸和航運。無數生物生活在淡水、海水或鹽水中，無論是水坑或海洋。.

水確實是地球上創造和維持生命不可或缺的資源之一。.